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Thk King of Beasts. 



ANIMAL LIFE 



IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND 



A ZOOLOGY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE 






By SARAH COOPER 



%* 



ILLUSTRATED 




NEW YORK 
HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 

1887 



Copyright, 1887, by Harper & Brothers. 
All rights reserved. 






TO 

THE ENTHUSIASTIC CLASSES 

FOR WHICH THE LESSONS WERE PREPARED 

THIS BOOK 

3s &ffectiottatelB Hkbuateb 



PREFACE. 



This book is offered to young people with the hope 
that it may help them in their studies of natural history. 
The pleasure of every ramble in the country or by the sea- 
side is increased by an acquaintance with the animals and 
plants which are found by the way, and consequently 
these studies bring their own reward. 

It is far more charming to gain this knowledge from 
the objects themselves than from merely reading about 
them in books ; and it is therefore hoped that each subject 
which is treated in these pages will be studied from speci- 
mens actually in hand, whenever it is possible to obtain 
them. 

The habit of collecting natural objects and curiosities is 
a helpful one ; and if young students are careful to find 
out all they can about these objects, the collection will in 
time represent an unexpected amount of positive knowl- 
edge. 

The aim has been to make this little book accurate, and 
to bring it up to the present condition of science; at the 
same time scientific terms have been avoided when others 
could be substituted for them. Classification has not 
been made prominent, yet the arrangement of Nicholson 
has been adhered to throuofhout. 



VI PREFACE. 

Starting with the sponge, and going systematically 
through the animal kingdom, a gradual development has 
been traced from the simple forms of life up to the high- 
est, and such subjects have been selected for the purpose 
as are probably of most general interest. 

Especial attention has been given to the structure of 
animals, and to the wonderful adaptation of this structure 

to their various habits and modes of life. 

S. C. 
Philadelphia, June, 1887. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

I. Sponges , 1 

II. Hydroids 12 

III. Jelly-fishes 18 

IV. The " Portuguese Man-of-war." 26 

V. Sea- anemones 29 

VI. Corals 36 

VII. Coral Reefs 43 

VIII. Ctenophora 49 

IX. Star fishes 56 

X. Sea-urchins 63 

XI. Crenolds, or Stone-lilies 70 

XII. Sea-cucumbers 76 

XIII. Earth-worms 82 

XIV. Crabs 88 

XV. Lobsters 95 

XVI. Barnacles 99 

XVII. Spiders 103 

XVIII. Insects 110 

XIX. Bees 119 

XX. Wasps and Mosquitoes . 128 

XXI. Ants 135 

XXII. Oysters 143 

XXIII. Mussels and Pectens 149 

XXIV. Clams and Razor-fishes 154 

XXV. Gasteropods 158 

XXVI. Limpets and Land-snails 165 

XXVII. The Octopus, or Devil-fish 170 

XXVIII. The Argonaut 176 

XXIX. The Pearly Nautilus 181 

XXX. Backboned Animals 185 

XXXI. Fishes 192 



VI 11 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

XXXII. The Migration of Fishes 205 

XXXIII. Frogs and Toads 211 

XXXIV. Turtles 217 

XXXV. Snakes 223 

XXXVI. Lizards 230 

XXXVII. Crocodiles 235 

XXXVIII. Characteristics of Birds 243 

XXXIX. Birds' Eggs and Nests 253 

XL. Swimming-birds (Natatores) 260 

XLI. Wading-birds {Oraliatores) 271 

XLII. Running-birds {Cursores) 277 

XLIII. Scratching-birds (Rasores) 284 

XLIV. Climbing-birds (Scansores) 295 

XLV. Perching-birds (Lisessores) 302 

XL VI. Birds of Prey (Raptores) . 320 

XLV1I. The Ornithorhynchus . . 327 

XLVIII. Kangaroos and Opossums 333 

XLIX. Sloths, Armadillos, and Great Ant-eaters. 338 

L. Whales 344 

LI. Horses 353 

LII. Deer 358 

LIII. Camels 368 

LIV. Elephants 372 

LV. Lions and Tigers 377 

LVI. Seals and Walruses 382 

LVII. Beavers and Squirrels 387 

LVIII. Bats 395 

LIX. Monkeys 398 

LX. Man 406 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



The King of Beasts Frontispiece. 



FIG. PAGE 

1. Sponge 1 

2. Sponges Growing 2 

3. Groups of Spicules 3 

4. Circulation of Water through 

the Sponge 4 

5. Living Sponge in Action ... 4 

6. Neptune's Glove 5 

7. Venus's Flower-basket 7 

8. Sponge -fishing 9 

9. Glass Sponge 10 

10. Hydroids growing on a Shell 12 

11. Hydroid Magnified, showing 

Spore-sacs 14 

12. Jelly-fish (Aurelia Aurita), 

with Young in various 

Stages 16 

13. Section of Jelly-fish, showing 

Tubes and Mouth 18 

14. Jelly-fish {Cyancea Enploca- 

mia) 19 

15. Lasso-cells from a Fresh-wa- 

ter Hydroid (magnified). . 20 

16. Mushrooms of the Sea 23 

17. Group of Phosphorescent An- 

imals 24 

18. " Portuguese Man-of-war ''. . 28 

19. Stomach and Chambers of 

Sea-anemone 30 

20. Cluster of Anemones 32 

2-1. Sea-anemones 34 



FIG. PAGE 

22. Branching Coral Alive, with 

Polyps expanded 37 

23. Astraea Pallida (natural size) 39 

24. Mushroom Coral 40 

25. Organ-pipe Coral 41 

26. Fragment of Red Coral with 

Polyps 42 

27. Formation of Coral Reef. . . 44 

28. An Atoll 47 

29. Ctenophora 50 

30. Cilia on the Gills of a Mus- 

sel 52 

31. Ctenophora and Phosphores- 

cent Fishes 54 

32. Pleurobrachia .... 55 

33. Under Side of Ray, showing 

the Hollow Tubes and the 
Limestone Plates of the 
Skeleton 57 

34. Star-fishes (lower one show- 

ing under side and tube- 
feet) 58 

35. Dining upon an Oyster .... 59 

36. Interior of Ray 61 

37. Under Surface of a Sea-ur- 

chin, showing Rows of 
Suckers among the Spines 63 

38. Shell of a Sea-urchin without 

Spines 64 

39. Section of a Sea-urchin. ... 65 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. PAGE 

40. Spine of Sea-urchin (magni- 

fied) 67 

41. Sand-dollar 68 

42. Keyhole-urchin 69 

43. A Living Crinoid (West In- 

dies) 71 

44. Crinoidal Limestone 73 

45. A Fossil Crinoid 74 

46. Sea-cucumbers (Holothuri- 

ans) 77 

47. Sea-cucumbers 78 

48. A Sea -cucumber (Pentacta 

Frondosa) 79 

49. Sea-orange 80 

50. Earth-worm 83 

51. Crab 88 

52. Early Form of the Crab. . . 91 

53. Hermit-crab 92 

54. Fiddler-crab 93 

55. King-crab 94 

56. Lobster {Homarus Vulgaris) 97 

57. Acorn-barnacles 99 

58. Acorn-barnacle, with Arms 

extended 100 

59. Body of Goose-barnacle. . . 101 

60. Goose-barnacles 102 

61. Foot of Spider (magnified). 103 

62. Geometric Web of Garden- 

spider 104 

63. Spinnerets of Spider 105 

64. Female Spider with Young 

Ones 106 

65. Nest of Tarantula 108 

66. Diagram of an Insect 110 

67. Head of a Bee, showing 

Compound Eyes, Simple 
Eye?, and Antennas Ill 

68. Alimentary Canal of a Bee- 

tle 112 

69. Tracheae of an Insect, show- 

ing Elastic Spiral Thread 112 

70. Butterfly in the Larva, Pupa, 

and Imago State. ...... 113 



FIG. 

71. 

72. 
73. 
74. 

75. 
76. 
11. 
78. 
79. 
80 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 
86. 

87. 



89a 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 

96. 
97. 



99, 



PAGE 

Scales on the Wing of a 

Moth 114 

Butterflies 115 

Moth and Lame 117 

Wings of a Bee, showing 

the Hooks 119 

A Bee's Sting 120 

Nest of Carpenter-bee. . . . 120 

Nest of Humble-bee 121 

Hive -bees 122 

Little Plunderers 123 

Digger-wasp — Cocoon and 

Larva 128 

Nest of Mud-wasp 129 

Nests of Social Wasps. . . . 130 

Hornets' Nest 131 

Different Stages in the 

Growth of a Mosquito. . 133 
Ant Nest, with Under- 
ground Passages 136 

Larva, Cocoon, and Pupa? 

of Red Ant (magnified). . 137 
Slave-making Ant (magni- 
fied) 138 

Queen of Slave - making 

Ants (magnified) 141 

Oyster in the Shell (with 
mantle removed from the 

upper surface) 144 

Bunch of Mussel-shells.. 149 

Pearl-bearing Shells 152 

Pecteu Shell 153 

Inside of a Clam-shell. . . . 154 

Clam (Madra) 156 

Razor-shell (Solen) 157 

Section of a Spiral Uni- 
valve 158 

Whelk 159 

Lingual Ribbons 160 

Clam-shell bored by Lin- 
gual Ribbon of Gaster- 

opod , . . . .... 161 

Sea -shells 162 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



\1 



FIG. 




PAGE 


FIG. 




PAGE 


100. 


Egg-cases of Whelk 


163 


132. 


A Fishing Fleet 


206 


101. 


Egg-cases of Pear-conch. 


163 


133. 


Male Salmon 


207 


102. 


Natica 


164 


134. 


Salmon-fishing 


208 


103. 


Egg-case of Natica 


164 


135. 


Female Salmon after 




104. 


Limpet-shell 


165 




Spawning 


209 


105 


Anatomy of a Snail 

An Edible Snail 

Octopus 


167 
168 
170 


136. 
137. 
138. 


The Frog 


1 >11 


106 


Frogs' Eggs 


911 


107. 


From a Tadpole to a Frog 212 


108. 


Suckers on the Arm of a 




139. 


Skeleton of Frog 


214 




Cuttle-fish 


171 
172 


140. 

141. 


Toads' Eggs 

Skeleton of the Tortoise 


215 


109. 


The Parrot's Beak 




110. 


Cuttle-fish (one -fifth nat- 






(plastron removed). . . . 


218 




ural size) 

The Squid 


173 
174 


142. 
143. 


Box-tortoise 


918 


111. 


Circulation in Reptiles. . . 


219 


112. 


Egg-cluster of Squid .... 


175 


144. 


Green Turtle 


221 


113. 


Argonauts 


177 


145. 


Hawk's-bill Turtle 


222 


114. 


Pearly Nautilus, with Shell 




146. 


Skull of Boa-constrictor. . 


224 




cut open (one-half nat- 




147. 


Poison Apparatus of the 






ural size) 


182 




Rattlesnake 


225 


115. 


Ammonite 


183 


148. 


Rattlesnake 


227 


116. 


A Vertebra 


185 


149. 


Cobra de Capello 


229 


117. 


Skeleton of a Lion 


186 


150. 


Lizard 


231 


118. 


Human Brain and Spinal 




151. 


The Chameleon 


232 




Cord sending off Nerves 


187 


152. 


The Iguana 


233 


119. 


Arm and Leg of a Man as 




153. 


The Horned Toad 


234 




thev are Seen when on 




154. 


Crocodile-hunting 


236 




All fours 


188 


155. 
156. 


Mouth of the Crocodile. . 
Alligator 


987 


120. 


Hind-leg of Alligator and 


238 




Fore-leg of Seal 


189 


157. 


Just Hatched 


239 


121. 


Fore and Hind Leg of a 




158. 


Footprints of Labyrin- 






Tapir 


190 




thodon 


240 


122. 


Blood Corpuscles of Man . 


191 


159. 


"The North Wind." 


244 


123. 


Nest of the Sun-fish 


193 


160. 


Skeleton of a Vulture. . . 


245 


124. 


The Fins of a Fish (pike- 




161. 


Bones of a Wing 


246 




perch) 


195 


162. 


Leg of a Bird perching. . 


247 


125. 


Anatomy of the Carp. . . . 


197 


163. 


Digestive Organs of a 




126. 


Plan of Circulation in 






Fowl 


248 




Fishes 


198 


164. 


Plan of Circulation in 




197 


Flying-fish 


199 
200 


165. 


Birds and Mammals. . . 
Parts of a Feather 


949 


128. 


Nest of the Stickleback . . 


251 


129. 


The Sea-horse 


201 


166. 


Section of a Hen's Egg 




130. 


Shark 


202 




before Incubation 


254 


131. 


Egg of a Shark 


203 


167. 


Building the Nest 


255 



xu 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. 




PAGE 


FIG. 


168. 


Nest of the Tailor-bird . . . 


257 


210. 


169. 


Nest of the Weaver-bird . 


258 


211 


170. 


Wild Ducks 


260 


212 


m. 


Foot of a Gannet. 


261 


213. 


172. 


Flamingoes 


263 




173. 


A few Sea-birds 


264 


214. 


174. 


Sea-gull.'. 


265 


215 


175. 


Stormy Petrel 


265 


216. 


176. 


The Albatross 


266 




177. 


The Eider-duck 


267 


217 


178. 


Penguin . . 


268 


218. 


179. 


Pelicans 


269 


219 


180. 


Haunt of the Heron 


271 




181. 


Crane 


272 


220. 


182. 


Marabou Stork and Young 


273 


221. 


183. 


Stork's Nest 


274 


222 


184. 


The Sacred Ibis 


275 




185. 


The Ostrich 


278 


223 


186. 


Hunting the Ostrich 


279 


224. 


187. 


Emu and Wolves 


281 


225. 


188. 


The Apteryx 


282 




189. 


Peacock 


285 


226. 


190. 


Argus Pheasant 


286 




191. 


Impeyan Pheasants (India] 


287 


227. 


192. 


A Partridge 


288 




193. 


Partridges in Winter. . . . 


289 




194. 


The Quail and her Nest. . 


290 


228. 


195. 


A Pigeon-loft 


291 


229 


196. 


Dodo and Apteryx 


293 


230. 


197. 


Birds of a Feather 


294 


231. 


198. 


Parrots 


295 


232 


199. 


Foot of Parrot 


296 


233 


200. 


Tongue of Woodpecker. . 


296 


234 


201. 


Woodpeckers at Home. . . 


297 




202. 


Woodpecker's Nest 


298 


235 


203. 


Toucan 


299 


236 


204. 


Trogon Elegans 


300 


237 


205. 


Oriole feeding its Mate. . 


303 




206. 


Frolic in the Snow 


305 


238 


207. 


Summer Yellow-birds . . . 


306 


239. 


208. 


The Crossbill 


307 


240 


209. 


Two- horned Horn bill feed- 




241 




ing its Mate 


308 


242 



PAGE 

Bird-of-paradise 309 

Play-house of Bower-bird 310 

House-wrens 311 

Broad - tailed Humming- 
birds 313 

The Nightingale 315 

Nest of Edible Swallow. . 317 
Home of the Bank- swal- 
low 318 

Whippoorwills 319 

Hawk and Humming-birds 320 
Claw and Beak of Bird of 

Prey 321 

The Golden Eagle 321 

Eagle's Nest 322 

The Fish -hawk and its 

Nest 324 

The Owl 326 

Ornithorhynchus 327 

Burrow of Ornithorhyn- 
chus 329 

Ornithorhynchus and Por- 
cupine Ant-eater 330 

Heads and Feet of Duck, 
Ornithorhynchus, and 
Porcupine Ant-eater. . . 331 
The Home of the Kangaroo 334 

Kangaroos 335 

Virginia Opossum 337 

Sloth 338 

Armadillo 339 

Three-banded Armadillo. 340 
Armadillos Rolled for Pro- 
tection 341 

Great Ant-eater 342 

Megatherium 343 

Whale, with its Young 

Calf 345 

Greenland Whale 347 

Whalebone 348 

Sperm-whale 349 

Dolphins 350 

The Narwhal 351 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



X11L 



FIG. PAGE 

243. Horses 353 

244. Group of Horses 355 

245. Zebras 357 

246. Stag, or Red-deer 359 

247. Stomach of a Ruminating 

Animal 360 

248. Reindeer digging in Snow 361 

249. Travelling in Lapland . . . 362 

250. Antelope 363 

251. The Koodoo 364 

252. The Gazelle 365 

253. The Graceful Chamois. . . 366 

254. Camel 368 

255. Skeleton of a Camel 369 

256. Bactrian Camel 370 

257. The Llama 371 

258. African Elephants 373 

259. Indian Elephants 374 

260. Lions 377 

261. Foot of a Lion 378 



FIG. PACK 

262. Tiger attacked by a Croco- 

dile 380 

263. Leopard 381 

264. Herd of Seals 382 

265. Harp-seal Mother and her 

Little One 383 

266. Walruses 385 

267. Beaver 387 

268. Skull of a Beaver 389 

269. Squirrels 391 

270. Flying- squirrels 393 

271. Skeleton of a Bat 395 

272. Bat 397 

273. White -throated Sapajou. 399 

274. Mandrill 400 

275. Skeletons of Man, Chim- 

panzee, and Orang. . . . 401 

276. Female Orang-outang. . . . 402 

277. Chimpanzee 403 

278. Gorillas 404 



ANIMAL LIFE 



IX 



THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



SPONGES. 



SUB-KINGDOM, PROTOZOA : CLASS, RIIIZOPODA. 

1. Sponges. — Sponges are so common and so familiar 
that many of us have used them all our lives without 
stopping to admire their curious and interesting structure, 
or to inquire into the history 

of their past lives. We may, 
indeed, have noticed that they 
can be squeezed into a very 
small space, and that they will 
return to their natural shape 
when the pressure is removed. 
Perhaps we have also noticed 
that they are full of little 
holes or pores, and that they 
will absorb a large quantity 
of water. 

2. Are Sponges Animals or Vegetables? — You know there 
has been a doubt whether sponges belong to the animal or 
to the vegetable kingdom. 




Fig;. 1. — Sponge. 



For a Ion of time naturalists 



ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




were uncertain about the matter, but it is now 
settled that they are animals, living and growing 
on the bottom of the ocean. The only part of 
the sponge that reaches us is the skeleton. The 
living sponge is a very different object. Shall 
we see what we can find out about it ? 

3. Lowest Forms of Animals. — Upon nam- 
ing the word " animal," a picture comes be- 
fore our minds of some creature having a 
mouth to eat with, and eyes to see with, 
and possessing feet or wings, or some 
other means of moving about ; but the 
sponges are far from this. They are 
probably the lowest form of animals 
with which you are acquainted. They 
have no nerves, no heart, no lungs, no 
mouth, and no stomach. 

4. Live Sponges. — Live 

sponges consist 

of jelly - like 




Fig. 2. — Sponges Growing. 




SPONGES. ' 3 

bodies united in a mass, and supported by a framework of 
horny fibres, and needle-shaped objects called "spicules," 
which you will see in Fig. 3, and which we must examine 
further after a while. This jelly-like 
flesh, covering all parts of the skele- 
ton, is about as thick as the white 
of an egg, and it decays immedi- 
ately after the death of the sponge. 
During life the flesh presents many 

bright colors ; in some species it is r . „ p A „ 

& ' * Fig. 3. — Groups of Spic- 

of a brilliant green, while in others ules. 

it is orange, red, or yellow. 

5. Framework. — The framework varies in different 
kinds of sponges. In those which are valuable for our use 
this framework consists of horny fibres interwoven in all 
directions until they form a mass of lacy net-work. This 
you can easily see with the naked eye, but by looking 
through a microscope you will see beauty you had not 
imagined. In our ordinary sponges these fibres are all 
that remain of the former living animal, the soft flesh 
with which they were covered having been removed. It 
is found that the horny fibres are composed of a substance 
very similar to the silk of a silk-worm's cocoon. They are 
exceedingly tough and durable. 

6. Use of Pores. — In looking at any sponge you will 
notice large holes through it, with many small pores scat- 
tered between them. The living sponge draws in water 
through these small pores, and countless streams are con- 
tinually flowing through every part of the sponge, bring- 
ing in little particles of food, and all the air it needs for 
breathing purposes. 

7. Cilia, and the Currents they produce.— In order that 
we may understand the curious circulation in sponges, let 



4 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

us examine Fig. 4, which shows a small section of a sponge 
with its branching canals. One large hole is shown at d 
and the smaller pores at b, while in those cup-shaped hollow 




Fig. 4. — Circulation of Water through the Sponge. 

places in the canals marked c we may see a number of fine 
threads, or " cilia." The word cilia means " eyelashes," but 
we must not mistake these threads for hairs like our eye- 




Fig. 5. — Living Sponge in Action. 



lashes, because they are, in fact, formed of soft, delicate 
flesh. It is their business to wave gently but continually, 
and thus urge onward the flowing current of water. Notic- 



SPONGES. 



ing the arrows, we may now follow the direction of the 
tiny streams as they enter the small pores, pass through the 
canals, and are finally thrown out from the large holes on 
the surface. With a microscope little fountains like those 
represented in Fig. 5 may 
be seen constantly play- 
ing from the large holes 
of a living sponge. 

8. How Sponges Eat. — 
Everything that lives 
must eat and breathe, 
but how is the sponge to 
eat without a mouth ? 
When the food touches 
any part of its body, the 
soft, jelly-like flesh sinks 
in to form a little bag, and 
at the same time the sur- 
rounding parts creep out 
over the morsel of food 
until it is entirely covered 
and digested. After this 
the flesh returns to its 
original position, and any 
shell or other refuse that 
remains from the meal is 
washed away. 

9. The Young. — Sponges 
have a curious manner of 
producing their young. At certain seasons very small 
oval masses of jelly are formed on the inner surface of 
the canals, which finally drop off. They remain in the 
canals for a time, and become perfect eggs, after which 




Fig. 6. — Neptune's Glove. 



6 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

they are thrown out by the water forming the little foun- 
tains, and instead of falling to the bottom, as we might 
suppose such helpless masses of jelly would do, they swim 
around as if they meant to have a little sport before com- 
mencing the sober realities of life. 

1 0. Food for other Animals. — You will be interested to 
know that while these jelly-like eggs were resting in the 
canals of the parent sponge, delicate cilia (which we learn- 
ed about just now) were forming at one end of the egg. 
These cilia strike the water with a rapid motion, and the 
eggs are rowed about through it until they settle down 
and attach themselves to some rock or shell on the bot- 
tom of the ocean, and finally grow up into the perfect 
sponge. The waters are swarming with these eggs at 
certain seasons, and great quantities of them are eaten by 
larger animals. 

11., Size and Shape. — Sponges are common in nearly all 
parts of the world, and they differ greatly in size and 
quality, but only a few species are useful to man. Some 
species are nearly round, others are always cup-shaped, 
some top -shaped, and some branched. A fresh -water 
sponge is frequently found in our streams, growing upon 
sticks and stones. It is of a bright green, and when 
seen under the water in the sunlight it is very pretty. 

1 2. Spicules of Sponges. — The spicules of sponges grow 
in a variety of elegant shapes; generally they are visible 
only with a microscope. They are composed of lime or 
flint, and are usually sharp-pointed. They are embedded 
in the flesh as well as in the horny fibres, thus serving 
to protect the helpless creatures from being devoured by 
fish and other animals. In our fine sponges the skeleton 
is almost destitute of spicules, while in some others these 
spicules are very numerous and wholly support the flesh. 




Fi£. 1. — Venus's Flower-basket. 



SPONGES. 




Such sponges are so loose in 
texture that they are of no val- 
ue for domestic purposes. 

13. Where Found. — Fine 
sponges are used by physicians 
in surgical operations, and are 
sometimes very expensive. Our 
finest sponges come from the Med- 
iterranean Sea and the Red Sea. They 
are obtained by divers, who search for them under rocks 
and cliffs, and who remove them carefully with a knife, 
that they may not be injured. The Turks, who carry on 
the trade, have between four and five thousand men em- 
ployed in collecting sponges, and the value of those col- 
lected each year is estimated at ninety thousand dollars. 
Coarse varieties are found in the Gulf of Mexico and 
the Bahama Islands. They are scraped off the rocks with 
forked instruments, and consequently.they are often torn. 

14. Method of Culture. — The demand for sponges has 
1* 



10 



ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



increased so much during the last few years that there 
is cause to fear the supply will be exhausted, unless some 
way can be found to cultivate them by artificial means. 
With this view, attempts have recently been made to raise 
sponges in the Adriatic Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico, 
by taking cuttings from full-grown ones and fastening 
them upon stones on the bottom of the ocean until they 
attach themselves. These experiments have been success- 
ful, but the operation is a delicate one, requiring great 
care not to bruise the soft flesh. It is necessary to keep 

the sponge under sea-water 
during the process. 

15. Glass Sponges. — Some of 
the glass sponges are exceed 
ingly beautiful. One of these, 
the delicate " Venus's flower-bas- 
ket," grows in the deep sea 
near the Philippine Islands. It 
looks like spun- glass woven into 
a beautiful pattern, and is so ex- 
quisite we can scarcely believe 
that it is the skeleton of a 
sponge. Fig. 9 shows another 
variety of glass sponge found 
between Gibraltar and the island 
of Madeira by the scientific par- 
ty on board the famous Chal- 
lenger, which ship was sent out 
by the British Government to 
explore the animal and vege- 
table wonders of the great deep. 

16. Boring Sponges. — The "boring sponge" spreads it- 
self over the shells of oysters and mussels, boring them 




WmtA 




Fi£. 9. — Glass Sponge. 



SPONGES. 11 

through and through, and dissolving the shell. It even 
bores into solid marble, and will, in time, completely de- 
stroy it. 

17. Flints are exceedingly hard substances, yet they are 
supposed to have been formed from soft sponges. By 
examining small pieces of flint under a microscope the 
texture of the sponge, in a fossil condition, is often clearly 
seen, and the spicules peculiar to sponges are recognized. 



12 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



II. 

HYDROIDS. 
SOME ODD RELATIONS OF THE JELLY-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, CCELENTERATA : CLASS, HYDROZOA. 

1. Hydroids, or Sea-firs. — Let us now examine some odd- 
looking animals called " hydroids," or sea-firs, which grow 

in the ocean, firmly rooted 
upon the bottom, or at- 
tached to shells and stones. 
The tall branches in Fig. 10 
are hydroids growing upon 
the shell of a dead mussel. 
A barnacle, too, has lived and 
died on this pretty shell, and 
little sea-weeds cluster around 
its remains. 

2. Related to Jelly-fishes.— 
We can scarcely imagine an- 
imals that are more unlike 
jelly-fishes than these slender 
branching hydroids are; and 
yet the wonderful story I 
have to tell you will show 
them to be so closely related 
that we could not study the 
life of one without studying the life of the other. 

3. Their Resemblance to Plants. — Long graceful sprays 




-Hydroids growing on a 
Shell. 



HYDROIDS. 13 

of hydroids are often thrown on shore by the tide, and as 
they resemble plants much more than animals, they are 
generally mistaken for sea- weeds. Many persons gather 
them for decorating brackets and hanging-baskets, and we 
frequently see bunches of them arranged in sea-shells, and 
offered for sale in our shops. The shopkeeper would prob- 
ably not know them by any other name than sea-weed. 
Still, they are animals, and we can mostly recognize them 
by their yellow, horny appearance, and by the numerous 
joints on their stems. 

4. Each Spray-point bears a Cup. — In looking at one of 
these sprays with a microscope you will find each little 
point on the stem to be in reality a dainty cup, which 
when alive contained a hungry animal. Should you find 
a piece freshly washed up from the ocean, it would be 
well to place it in a glass jar filled with sea-water, and 
after allowing it to remain perfectly still for a while, it 
may perhaps show you, if it is yet alive, how it has been 
accustomed to pass the quiet hours in its native home. 

5. Hydroids higher in the Scale of Life than Sponges. — 
You will find each cup occupied by a soft animal, with 
a mouth in the centre opening directly into the stomach. 
Hydroids, you see, are higher in the scale of life than 
sponges, for they possess mouths and stomachs. As we 
watch, the body of the animal will rise up in the cup, and 
from around the mouth will gradually creep out slender 
thread-like feelers, which may be extended quite a dis- 
tance, or drawn up at will entirely within the body of the 
animal. You will, of course, wish to use the proper name 
for these feelers. They are called tentacles, and they evi- 
dently serve to produce currents of water towards the 
mouth, and to bring the required food. In this way the 
little animals live, day after day and year after year, pa- 



14 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



tiently waving their tentacles, and waiting for the food 
that is sure to come. 

6. How Hydroids produce Jelly-fishes.— Do you ask what 
connection there is between these quiet little animals and 
the active jelly-fishes ? We shall soon see. The hydroids 
have grown by budding and branching somewhat as plants 
do. Occasionally pear-shaped cups much larger than 
those we have looked at are formed on the stem. These 
large cups are called spore - sacs. 
They contain the substances which, 
later, will grow into eggs, and at the 
proper time they fall off. After 
resting a while, and throwing out 
cilia and tentacles, these spore-sacs 
swim gayly away, and, strange to 
relate, they are henceforth known 
by the name of jelly-fishes! 

7. The Spore-sacs. — In Fig. 11 you 
will see a spray of hydroid magni- 
fied which shows two spore-sacs. In 
the species which is represented here 
(the Sertularia) the spore- sacs do not 
fall off, but they burst and discharge 
the eggs which they contain. These 
jelly-fishes now lead active lives, and 
as they dart and swim about in the 
water no one would suspect that they had any relation 
to the plant-like animals w T ith which we started, yet it is 
supposed that most hydroids have this wonderful history. 
8. The Young unlike their Parents. — Jelly-fishes produce 
eggs, from wdiich are born little floating bodies. These 
after a time fasten themselves to some stick or stone, and 
grow by budding until they become the elegant feathery 




Fig. 11. — Hydroid Mag- 
nified, showing Spoue- 

SACS. 



HYDROIDS. 15 

branches which we must now call hydroids. The young 
of nearly all animals resemble their parents, but the chil- 
dren of jelly-fishes, you see, are very different from the 
jelly-fish itself. In the next generation, however, we shall 
find jelly-fishes again. 

9. Difference between Plants and low Forms of Animal 
Life. — Most of the plant-like objects which we are accus- 
tomed to see growing near the shore are in reality hy- 
droids. Has it ever puzzled you to know the difference 
between plants and these low forms of animal life ? One 
very important difference is that most plants can procure 
their food directly from the soil, whereas animals are 
obliged to feed upon living substances, or those which 
have at some time been alive, as vegetables and animals. 

10. Found in all Parts of the Ocean growing in Families. 
— Hydroids grow in all parts of the ocean, in deep water 
as well as near the coast. Some of them are three feet 
high. One branch may contain a hundred thousand dis- 
tinct animals, the only communication between them being 
a circulation of fluid through the hollow stems. In this 
way each branch constitutes a family which has sprung 
originally from the same little egg. Some varieties never 
grow tall, and as they occur in patches over rocks and 
shells, they resemble thick beds of moss. 

11. Another Manner of producing Jelly-fishes. — The lit- 
tle hydroids which we see hanging from the under side of 
a rock in Fig. 12 produce jelly-fishes in a different man- 
ner from the one I have described, although it is equally 
remarkable. This hydroid has no buds or branches, but 
the main tube of the body divides itself into a number of 
rings or plates, until the whole animal looks somewhat like 
a pile of tiny saucers with scalloped edges. Finally the 
upper plate begins to twist and squirm until it loosens 



16 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

itself from the pile, and floats off to lead the gay and in- 
dependent life of a jelly-fish. It is followed by the other 
plates in their turn, each making a separate animal. These 
new jelly-fishes eat greedily and grow fast, forming some 
of our largest varieties. 




Fig. 12.— Jelly-fish (Aurelia Aurita), with Young in Various Stages. 



12. We can form but little idea of the immense num- 
bers of animals living in the ocean and drawing from the 
surrounding water all that is needed for their support. 
They cannot go in search of food, and they take only 
such as floats towards them. Still, they seem to have 
some choice in the matter, as they reject from their 
mouths any food they are not suited with. Many of 
these curious animals have bright colors, and surrounded 
as they are with a great variety of plants, they give to 
the bottom of the ocean a marvellous beauty. 



HYDROIDS. J 7 

13. Does it not seem strange that the slender, delicate 
sprays of which we have been speaking are really animals, 
and more than that, the children of jelly-fishes ? A little 
girl once exclaimed, on hearing of these wonderful changes 
that happen in the life of hydroids, " Why, it seems almost 
like a fairy-tale !" 



18 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



Ill 

JELLY-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, CCELENTERATA: CLASS, HYDROZOA. 

1.* Jelly-fishes, — When jelly-fishes are seen lying in 
shapeless masses upon the beach, where they have been 
washed by the tide, their appearance is not attractive. 
If, however, we can watch them from the side of a boat, 
or from a long pier, as they dart 
through the water with their ten- 
tacles trailing after them, we shall 
soon learn to admire their graceful 
movements and their elegant colors. 
There is something very interesting 
too in these little inhabitants of 
the great deep. They are such soft, 
helpless things, yet they live and 
have their own good times if only 
the boisterous waves do not catch 
them and dash them too harshly 
against the rough shore. 

2. Jelly-fishes a single Bell-shaped 
Mass. — Jelly-fishes consist of a sin- 
gle bell-shaped mass of jelly, from the inner surface of 
which hangs the body of the animal, with the mouth in 
the centre. The mouth opens directly into the stomach, 
from which several hollow tubes (usually four) extend to 
a circular tube around the edge of the bell. In the jelly- 




Fig. 13. — Section of Jel- 
ly-fish, SHOWING TOBES 

and Mouth. 



JELLY-FISIIES. 



19 



fish (Fig. 13, a), the side next to us has been removed, 
that we may see the tubes and the mouth hanging in the 
centre; b shows us the same viewed from below. 

3. Eggs of Jelly-fishes. — The eggs of jelly-fishes are 
formed in large quantities in the tubes leading from 
the centre. Fig. 

13 shows the en- 
larged cavities con- 
taining eggs. At 
certain seasons of 
the year great clus- 
ters of bright -col- 
ored eggs may be 
seen through the 
transparent flesh. 
A few jelly-fishes 
are thought to pro- 
duce young ones 
resembling them- 
selves,without pass- 
ing through the 
strange forms we 
noticed in studying 
hydroids. 

4. How they Move. 
— Hydroids, you 
will remember, are 

abundant in all oceans; so are jelly-fishes, and they are 
often found floating in large companies. Jelly-fishes are 
propelled by alternately taking in and throwing out water 
under the bell. This gives them a jerking movement, as 
though caused by breathing. They come to the surface 
chiefly when the water is quiet, and, as they like the 




14. — Jelly-fish (Cyangea Enplocamia) 



20 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



warm sun, you will not see many of them at an early 
hour in the day. They are easily alarmed. If they meet 
with an obstacle in their course, or if they are touched 
by an enemy, the bell contracts, the tentacles are instantly 
drawn up, and the creature sinks in the water. 

5. Beginnings of Eyes and Ears. — Upon the outer edge 
of the bell there are bright-colored specks and solid spots, 
which are thought to be the beginnings of eyes and ears. 
Although these spots never grow to be perfect eyes and 
ears in the jelly-fish, they promise that Nature has in store 
for her children the precious gifts of sight and hearing. 
Such imperfect organs are called 
by the wise men rudimentary or- 
gans. This is the lowest animal 
in which anything corresponding 
to our nerves is found. 

6. Power of Contracting and Ex- 
panding their Tentacles. — Delicate 
fringes and tentacles hang from 
the lower edge of the bell, add- 
ing greatly to its beauty. The 
tentacles are often many feet 
long, yet the animal has the pow- 
er of drawing them up so that 
they are not visible. This curi- 
ous power of contracting and 
expanding the tentacles belongs 
to many humble sea creatures. 
Sometimes, while we are wonder- 
ing at their disappearance, they 
lengthen again as if by magic. 

7. How Jelly-fishes secure Food.— The tentacles of jelly- 
fishes arc covered with a great many lasso-cells. These 




Fig. 15. — Lasso-cells from 
a Fresh -water Hydroid 
(Magnified). 

a, Barbed Dart within the cell ; 
b, Barbed Dart escaped from 
the cell; c, Lasso fully ex- 
tended, carrying the dart at 
the end. 



JELLY- FISH ES. 21 

lasso -cells are too small to be seen without a micro- 
scope ; still, they are powerful weapons in their way, 
and are quite sufficient to enable the jelly - fish to 
catch its food. You know how the skilful hunter uses 
a lasso for catching wild cattle. The jelly-fish uses its 
lasso in quite a different manner, but it may be equally 
effective. 

8. Lasso-cell. — When examined, each lasso-cell, or little 
sac, is found to contain a long slender thread coiled within 
it, somewhat like a lasso, and floating in a fluid. The cell 
is filled so full of the fluid that it bursts with the slightest 
touch, and as the fluid squirts out, it carries with it the 
slender lasso armed with sharp stings. In this way lassos 
are darted out to capture many little crabs or fishes that 
brush too near in passing. 

9. Description and Use of Lasso. — The sting of the lasso 
seems to paralyze the unfortunate creatures, and they make 
no effort to escape as the tentacles coil round them and 
carry them to the mouth of the greedy jelly-fish. In 
Fig. 15 you will see a group of lasso -cells highly mag- 
nified. The cell at a has not yet burst, and through its 
thin walls we see the barbed dart at the end of the lasso. 
At b the lasso has been thrown out only a short distance, 
while at c the long slender lasso still carries the dart at the 
end, and the curious little bladder is much larger than it 
was inside the cell. The lasso of this specimen is exceed- 
ingly delicate and simple, while that of some animals is 
covered with stinging bristles. Is it not a dainty weapon 
to be used in the continual warfare carried on by these 
innocent-looking creatures? Small as the lassos are, they 
serve to protect the soft- bodied animals from their nu- 
merous enemies. 

10. Sea-nettles— Medusae. — If we should touch the soft, 



22 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

pretty tentacles of a jelly-fish, we should probably be stung 
by these tiny weapons. This irritation is produced in the 
flesh by the numerous sharp points on the lassos, and is 
similar to the stinging of nettles. For this reason jelly- 
fishes are often called sea -nettles. The correct name, 
however, which you will find in scientific books, is "Me- 
dusae." 

11. Size. — Jelly-fishes vary greatly in size. Some are 
mere dots, so extremely small that we might not notice 
them in the water, while one species is said to be seven 
feet in diameter, with tentacles measuring fifty feet in 
length. The parent of this huge jelly-fish was a hydroid 
only half an inch high. Its children will be the same. 
What do you think its grandchildren will be ? 

12. Nature of the Jelly-like Flesh.— The jelly-like flesh 
of these animals consists largely of water, and a specimen 
weighing several pounds when alive will shrink away to 
almost nothing if exposed to the sun and the wind. As 
the body contains no bones or other solid matter, it all 
perishes together, and no trace is left of its former beau- 
tiful shape. You wall see that jelly-fishes are in no way 
like real fishes. As they float on the ocean they look 
more like fantastic mushrooms, and one writer has called 
them " Mushrooms of the Sea." 

13. Color. — It would be impossible to describe the va- 
ried colors of jelly - fishes, as they include almost every 
hue, the beautiful tints being probably heightened by 
their transparency. All shades are to be found, from 
pale blue and pink to bright red and yellow. Those 
found in tropical seas are of a deeper color than ours. 

14. One Delicate Kind. — In striking contrast with these 
brilliant jelly-fishes is one species which is so delicate and 
transparent that as it floats upon the water we can scarce- 



JELLY-FISHES. 



23 




]y see the sub 
stance of which 
it is composed. 
The only parts that 
strike the eye are 
the circular tube around 
the edge and the four ra- 
diating tubes with their 
large clusters of eggs. 

The tubes look as if they were held together by some 
slight web. This jelly - fish is extremely languid in its 



16. 



-Mushrooms of the Sea. 



24 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

movements, and it sometimes remains perfectly quiet in the 
bright sunshine for hours, not even moving its tentacles. 

15. Phosphorescence. — Although jelly-fishes are so brill- 
iant in the daytime, they have a different beauty at night, 
when they throw out a golden light slightly tinged with 
green, resembling that of a glowworm. Vast numbers 
of small animals in the sea have this power of giving 
light from their bodies. The light is called phosphores- 




Fijjr. 17. — Group of Phosphorescent Animals. 



cence. As it may be seen at any time of the year illu- 
minating all oceans, it is an unfailing source of delight 
to voyagers. It is most conspicuous on a dark night, 
when the water is agitated by the motion of a boat, or by 



JELLY-FISHES. 25 

the breaking waves. In Fig. 11 is a group of the larger 
phosphorescent animals. 

16. A pail of sea-water carried into a dark room often 
affords a good opportunity for studying this interesting 
phenomenon. Although we may not have detected the 
presence of any animals before, when the water is stirred 
or jostled we may see the beautiful sparkles of light. The 
phosphorescence of some animals is of a bluish tint; in 
others it is red, like flame. 

17. A person will rarely tire of watching a boat as its 
prow turns up a furrow of liquid fire, and each dip of 
the oar sends a miniature flash of lightning through the 
otherwise dark water. . 



26 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



IV. 
THE "PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR." 

SUB-KINGDOM, CCELENTERATA : CLASS, HYDROZOA. 

1. Some one bas probably imagined that this curious 
floating animal looks like a Portuguese war vessel, and 
on that account has given to the innocent and defenceless 
creature a name which seems to us very inappropriate. 
We will not be dismayed, however, by a forbidding name, 
for the graceful animal is not in the least warlike. It 
is to be hoped you may all have the pleasure some day 
of seeing one floating over the sea like a fairy vessel, not 
minding the winds or the storms. You will be delighted 
with its beauty, and you will wonder how so frail a bark 
can withstand the waves. 

2. Shape and Color. — When we examine the Portuguese 
Man-of-war we shall find it to be a transparent pear- 
shaped bladder, about nine inches long, throwing off, like 
a soap-bubble, bright blue colors tinged with green, vio- 
let, and crimson. On top of the bladder there is a wavy, 
crumpled crest of delicate pink. This may perhaps act as 
a sail. 

3. A Colony of Animals. — From one end of the bottom 
hangs a large bunch of curious - looking, bright - colored 
threads, and bags, and coiled tentacles which trail after 
it. You will see these streamers in the picture, and you 
may be surprised to learn that they are separate animals, 
forming a little colony, which is floated by the bladder. 



THE "PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR." 27 

Still, they are not entirely distinct; they have various 
uses, and each contributes its share to the good of the 
colony. Some produce eggs, some do the swimming, some 
do the eating, and others are provided with lasso-cells to 
procure food. 

4. The Food taken by One nourishes All. — In such col- 
onies of animals as this, the food which is taken by one 
individual helps to nourish all the others. This is accom- 
plished by the circulation of fluids throughout the whole 
colony, carrying nourishment to each one. 

5. Organs Defined. — In animals that are more highly de- 
veloped we shall find these offices performed by special 
parts of the same body. These different portions of the 
body, which are set apart to perform certain duties, are 
called organs. Thus we speak of the eye as the organ of 
sight, and the ear as the organ of hearing. 

6. Length of Tentacles. — The tentacles of the Portu- 
guese Man-of-war are more than twenty feet long, yet 
they may be drawn up to within an inch of the bladder. 
The lasso -cells upon their surface not only wound the 
prey, but also sting bathers or any persons who come in 
contact with them. Even after death the tentacles pro- 
duce irritation when they are touched. 

7. Where Found. — These beautiful creatures are found 
in tropical seas. They are abundant in the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, and are often carried by the Gulf Stream into North- 
ern waters. Occasionally they drift upon our own shore. 
Do you think you would recognize one floating on the 
ocean when you had not expected to see it ? If you 
should ever have one in your possession, it may be well 
to dry it or keep it in alcohol ; for although its delicate 
beauty cannot be preserved, it will still be interesting to 
those who have never seen living ones. 



28 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




8. In watch- 
ing the " Por- 
tuguese Man- 
of-war" you 
will find, at 
times, that 
some of its 
tentacles are 
drawn up so as 
scarcely to be 
seen ; but sud- 
denly these 
are let down, 
and others dis- 
appear. Soon they may all be extended to their 
full length, then strangely curled and twisted. 
9. Floating in Companies.— One might sup- 
pose these animals were fond of society, since 
they are sometimes seen floating in large com- 
panies, which have been fancifully called fleets. 
Travellers occasionally speak of meeting great 
numbers of them, both large and small, stud- 
ding the surface of the ocean: probably the 
young ones were out sailing with their parents. 



18.- 



PORTCGUESE MaN-OF-WAR.' 



SEA-ANEMONES. 29 



V. 
SEA-ANEMONES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, CGELENTERATA : CLASS, ACTINOZOA. 

1. Ocean Treasures. — Many of you, no doubt, have 
learned, when at the sea - shore, the delight of climbing 
over wet rocks covered with slippery sea-weed, and peer- 
ing into the little pools left between the stones to see if 
the great waves have dropped any treasures from the 
ocean. Those who have enjoyed this pleasure will gladly 
recall the sparkling pools, carpeted with rich-colored sea- 
weeds which half conceal the timid animals that live 
there. 

2. In such pools the rocks, the shells, and the sea-weeds 
all have richer tints from the bright water that covers 
them, and one who loves beautiful things will linger be- 
side the pools as if gazing into enchanted gardens. 

3. Sea-anemone. — On searching these rock pools we 
shall probably find many curious animals. None would 
interest us more than the "sea-anemone," though when 
we find it hiding in some dark corner, with its tentacles 
all drawn in, and looking like a soft lump, it may not 
promise much beauty. 

4. Why so Named. — The sea-anemone adheres firmly to 
the rocks, so we will not pull it off. If we watch long 
enough we shall see it begin to rise in the middle, and 
from the summit will creep out, very slowly and softly, 



30 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



beautiful tentacles like a wreath around the top. It is 
now that this singular animal looks like a flower, and de- 
serves the name that it possesses. Perhaps it is not so 
much like an anemone as it is like a chrysanthemum or 
some other flower with a great many petals. You will be 
charmed with the delicate light-colored tentacles waving 
gently in the water. 

5. Description. — In the middle of the tentacles is the 
mouth, leading into a hollow sac, which is the stomach. 

The remainder of 
the body is divided 
by partitions from 
top to bottom into 
open chambers. In 
Fig. 19 you will see 
the stomach at e, 
and the chambers 
at k. There is an 
opening at the bot- 
tom of the stomach 
through which the 
food passes after 
it is digested. 
Sea-water also en- 
ters the body 
through the stom- 
ach, and both the 
water and the nourishment circulate freely through the 
chambers. Each tentacle is a hollow tube connected at 
its- base with one of the chambers, and readily filled with 
water. Here we have an explanation of the mysterious 
manner in which the sea-anemone swells itself out and 
then shrinks away again. The body and tentacles are 




Fh 



19. — Stomach and Chambers of Sea- 
anemone. 



c, tentacles; d, month; e, stomach; g', g\ openings 
in the partitions ; k, chambers. 



SEA-ANEMONES. 31 

enlarged, by drawing in water to fill them, and when 
they suddenly contract the water is forced out through 
the mouth. 

6. No hard Skeleton. — The sea -anemone has no hard 
skeleton whatever; all parts of the body are soft, like a 
stiff jelly. It can draw in its tentacles out of sight, and 
it will do so upon the slightest alarm, rolling itself into 
an ugly lump like the one we found. Allow it to remain 
quiet for a while, however, and it will blossom out as gor- 
geously as ever. 

7. The Manner of Feeding. — When any little crab, or 
worm, or small fish brushes past the tentacles, the lasso- 
cells are darted out to paralyze it, and the tentacles then 
seize the prey and carry it to the mouth. The bones or 
shells which remain after the meal are thrown out from 
the mouth. The tentacles hold the prey tightly, so that 
even cunning crabs cannot escape, and you know it is not 
the easiest thing in the world to catch a crab and hold it. 

8. Sea-anemones are greedy creatures. It takes a great 
deal of food to satisfy their appetites, and their mouths 
can be extended to receive quite large animals. They eat 
mussels and cockles by sucking the body out of its shell. 
Great numbers of sea-anemones, in their turn, are devour- 
ed by other animals, their soft bodies offering little resist- 
ance to their foes. 

9. Variety of Color. — The variety of color in these ani- 
mals is almost endless. Some of them are rich orange 
and chocolate colors, others purple dotted with green. 
One beautiful species has violet tentacles pointed with 
white; another, red tentacles speckled with gray. Another 
spreads out its green arms edged with a circle of dead 
white, while still another opens a milk-white top circled 
with a border of pink. In Fig. 20 is a cluster of beauti- 



32 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

ful anemones. The two small ones at the right show how 
these creatures look when closed. 

10. Animals protected by "Mimicry." — Some sea-anem- 
ones which live in exposed situations are of a dull, dusky 
brown, covered with rough warts, while animals of the 




20. — Cluster of Anemones. 



same species, living in deep water, where there is less 
need of concealment, have smooth skins adorned with 
brilliant tints of rose, scarlet, or light green. This beau- 
tiful provision of Nature for protecting animals by mak- 
ing them inconspicuous is called " mimicry." In follow- 



SEA-ANEMONES. 33 

ing oar studies in Natural History we shall find many in- 
stances of this general resemblance in the color or shape 
of animals to the objects by which they are surrounded, 
and we shall notice that the animals are in this way con- 
cealed from their enemies. 

11. Great Numbers of Eggs. — The number of eggs pro- 
duced by sea-anemones seems almost incredible. A sin- 
gle animal is said to throw out three hundred eggs in 
one day. The eggs are little jelly-like lumps which are 
formed on the inside of the partitions, and are thrown 
out from the mouth. After swimming about by means 
of cilia, they settle on some solid body and begin to grow. 
Sometimes the young ones remain within the body of the 
parent until their tentacles are formed. They are then 
ready to settle down soon after reaching the water. 

12. Budding and Renewal of Lost Parts. — Sea-anemones 
increase by budding as well as by eggs. At the lower 
edge of the body little round knobs are sometimes formed, 
which separate from the parent and grow into perfect ani- 
mals. If the tentacles or other parts of the body are re- 
moved, new tentacles soon grow in their places. If an 
individual is torn in pieces, each fragment has the power 
of forming for itself a mouth and throwing out tentacles, 
and becoming a new sea-anemone, perfect in all its parts. 

13. Where Anemones are Found. — Most species live in 
holes among the rocks, attached to stones or shells, over 
which they slide in a clumsy way. They are especially 
fond of deep dark grottos, and when they have taken full 
possession of such places, they may be found clinging to 
the sides and roof of the cave, and displaying their charms 
without reserve. Although they do not enjoy the glare 
of the bright sun, they expand best in mild, clear weather, 
and remain closed when the sea is rough and stormy. 

2* 



34 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 21. — Sea- anemones. 

14. A few of these animals float on the ocean. One 
sea-anemone is fond of a roving life, and having no very 
good means of travelling about, it attaches itself to the 
back of a certain kind of crab, and accompanies the crab 



SEA-ANEMONES. 35 

in all its wanderings. There seems to be an attraction 
between the two, and one is rarely seen without the other. 

15. Another species is mostly found clinging to the shell 
of a whelk, but for certain good reasons it never clings to 
a living one. The whelk burrows in the sand. This would 
be disagreeable and inconvenient to the anemone, so it 
prefers a dead shell which has been taken possession of 
by a hermit-crab, and henceforth it travels about with the 
crab. We should scarcely look for affection in a crab, but 
it has been said that the hermit grows fond of its com- 
panion, and that when it has outgrown its shell and has 
selected a new one, it will carefully lift the anemone from 
the old home and place it on the new one, " giving it sev- 
eral little taps with its big claws to settle it." 

16. A Simple Aquarium. — Do not fail to hunt up these 
lovely rock pools when you have an opportunity. The 
pleasure of a visit to the sea-shore is greatly increased by 
an interest in the strange forms of animal life which we 
see there and nowhere else. A glass jar filled with sea- 
water is often a source of great delight. In it you may 
drop any strange - looking object that has excited your 
curiosity. Perhaps this very object may prove to be 
some odd little animal which is not yet dead, but which 
will revive with the touch of the life-giving water. 

17. In this way we may watch their habits and their 
hidden beauties. Sea-anemones do well in such an aqua- 
rium, and as they cling to the side of the jar, we can ob- 
serve all their parts while they are in action. By far the 
pleasantest way to learn about them is to let them tell 
their own story. The water must be changed frequently, 
for impurities are constantly passing from the bodies of 
even these delicate animals. They will soon die if placed 
in fresh water. 



36 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



VI. 
CORALS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, CCELENTERATA : CLASS, ACTINOZOA. 

1. Corals. — Most persons admire corals. They are so 
common and easily obtained that I hope each of you will 
lay aside your reading just here, and hunt up a piece, no 
matter how small, that we may examine it carefully, and 
see what we can find out about it. You must find, how- 
ever, a piece of the natural coral, just as it was brought 
up out of the sea, and not a polished piece such as is 
made into ear-rings and brooches and strings of beads 
for ornaments. 

2. The Roughness on the Surface. — What makes this bit 
of natural coral so rough ? The first glance will convince 
you that those curious pits and little cups on the surface 
mean something ; and when we remember that all the 
corals which reach us are the skeletons of former living 
animals, they interest us at once. 

3. Home of the Corals. — Few of us, perhaps, will ever be 
so fortunate as to see living corals, since they grow prin- 
cipally in the deep water of warm oceans. The higher 
the temperature, the greater the variety and profusion of 
corals. They are delicate creatures, however, as they will 
not flourish under adverse circumstances. They require 
water of a certain depth, and they die immediately if 
exposed to the sun or to cold weather. During life the 
skeleton is covered with soft flesh, the surface of which is 
thickly studded with star-like animals called polyps. In 



CORALS. 



37 




22. — Branching Coral Alive, with Polyps Expanded. 



this way millions of polyps are sometimes clustered to- 
gether in one community. As they wave their delicate 
tentacles of white, green, or rose color, they are very beau- 
tiful, especially if seen in bright sunlight through water 
that is clear and still. 

4. A Piece of Coral Examined. — In Fig. 22 is shown a 
piece of living coral with the polyps expanded. The flesh 
has been removed from the upper branch on the left that 
we may see the skeleton. Let us suppose that the speci- 
mens we have selected for study are of this kind. Each 
of the tiny cups on the surface was once the framework 



38 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

of a separate polyp, and we shall find that its interior is 
divided by a number of partitions which do not quite 
reach the centre. Look into the cups with your micro- 
scopes,* and you will find them very beautiful. One set 
of partition-walls reaches almost to the centre, and be- 
tween these walls are shorter ones. These give us a clew 
to the kind of animal that has lived here, and they will at 
once remind you of the partitions in the sea-anemone, as 
shown in Fig. 19 of the last chapter. Indeed, the whole 
structure of a coral polyp is similar to that of an anemone, 
and we can now easily imagine the stomach of the polyp 
hanging down in the opening left between those delicate 
partitions. Coral polyps differ from sea-anemones, how- 
ever, in three important ways — they have hard skeletons, 
they cannot move about, and they usually grow in clusters. 

5. Life History of the Polyps. — When young, coral polyps 
are little jelly-like animals which swim about in the wa- 
ter. After they have chosen a resting-place, and the 
stomach and tentacles have grown, hard particles of lime, 
which they have drawn in from the sea- water, settle in 
their flesh to form a circular cup as well as the partitions 
inside. In this way the polyps soon acquire a solid frame, 
the soft parts being the stomach, the fringe of tentacles, 
and the fleshy mass covering the skeleton. They can draw 
the tentacles entirely within the body, as the anemone 
does. Like the anemone they also have lasso-cells for 
capturing their food. 

6. How Corals become Branched. — Should it be a branch- 
ing coral whose history we are tracing, it will now begin 



* A Coddington lens, which is inexpensive, is a useful thing to possess. 
It can be carried in the pocket ; and if we have it always with us, we may 
find new beauties wherever we go. 



CORALS. 



39 



to bud from the sides. The buds will grow into branches, 
throwing out other buds, somewhat as plants do, until Ave 
have an elegantly branching colony. Each bud is a new 
polyp, and remains attached to the branch from which 
it sprang. Although the polyps in such a community 
have separate mouths and stomachs, there is a close con- 
nection between them, and a free circulation of fluids 
through the soft flesh. 




Fig. 23. — Astr£a Pallida (Natural sizk). 

V. One Generation after Another. — As in other families 
one generation passes away and another takes its place, 
so in large branches of coral the lower and older portions 
may be dead, and living polyps will be found only at the 
ends of the branches. 

8. The Eggs. — Besides increasing by budding, corals 
increase rapidly by eggs. Their eggs are pear-shaped, 
transparent bodies, covered with cilia, which are in con- 
stant motion, and which row the jelly-like lumps through 
the water. The parents, you remember, are firmly rooted 
to some object, but their little ones are gifted for a time 



40 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

with the power of motion. They may well enjoy the 
privilege while it lasts, for it is their only chance of ex- 
ploring their ocean home. Presently they must settle 
down like other sedate corals. It is in this manner that 
the young polyps are distributed through the ocean 
instead of growing in a crowded colony around the 
parent. 

9. Coral not Built by an Insect — "Radiates." — You will 
often hear coral spoken of as having been built by an in- 
sect, and you will see at once that this is far from correct. 
Coral polyps are veiy different from insects, and their 
skeletons grow, much as ours do, inside of the animal; so 
we cannot say they have been built. All such animals as 
coral polyps, which have the mouth in the centre, with 
other parts radiating from it, are called " Radiates." 

10. Different Forms of Coral. — Besides these branching 








Fig. 24.— Mushroom Coral. 



corals which resemble trees and shrubs, there are other 
kinds which grow in solid masses without sending off 
branches. Some assume the shape of graceful vases, and 
all of these varieties are gayly decked with star-like polyps 



CORALS. 



41 



of varied colors. Does it not seem to you as if the ocean 
was one vast storehouse of beautiful things ? 

11. The Mushroom Coral. — The mushroom coral (Fig. 
24) looks indeed like a large mushroom, although you will 
notice that the leaflets are on the upper surface instead of 
being underneath, as they are in the vegetable mushroom. 
This coral is the skeleton of 

one huge polyp, and we see the 
depression in the centre corre- 
sponding to the little cups on 
most other corals. 

12. Organ -pipe Coral. — The 
organ-pipe coral consists of love- 
ly crimson tubes standing up- 
right, and connected at short 
distances by thin flat plates, 
which give it the appearance of 
being several stories in height. 
These plates may be distinctly 
seen in Fig. 25. When alive, a 
bright purple polyp protrudes 
from the top of each tube. 

13. Red Coral. — Red coral, which is used for jewellery, 
grows in a bushy form on rocks at the bottom of the 
Mediterranean and Red seas. The fleshy mass of this 
coral is colored red by the numerous red spicules it con- 
tains, while the polyps themselves are pure white, the 
whole resembling a pretty red shrub spotted over with 
sparkling white flowers. The spicules in the centre of 
the branches form a solid stem, which takes a fine polish. 
Underneath the flesh the surface of the coral is marked 
with deep grooves, which are canals for the circulation 
of water. These grooves are shown at both ends of the 




25. — Organ-pipe Coral. 



42 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

brancli in Fig. 26. They are always removed in polish- 
ing. 

14. Red coral is generally obtained by fishermen, who 
drop into the water heavy wooden crosses to which strong 
nets are attached. As the boat moves slowly forward, 
the crosses are raised and lowered to break off the coral 
branches. The apparatus is then lifted from the water, 
and the fragments of coral which have become entangled 




Fier. 26. — Fragment op Red Coral with Polyps. 



in the net are carefully removed. There are many shops 
in Italy where the coral is polished and cut into various 
ornaments. Delicate rose -colored corals are considered 
very choice and elegant, but the natives of India prefer 
blood-red ones, which contrast finely with their dark rich 
complexions. Corals are their favorite ornaments, and 
large quantities are imported every year. 



CORAL REEFS, 43 



VII. 
CORAL REEFS. 

1. Circular Islands. — The attention of seamen and navi- 
gators has long been attracted by the number of circular 
islands in the warm parts of the Pacific and Indian oceans. 
Generally each one of these circular islands contains a 
lake of quiet Avater extending almost to its outer shores, 
so that the island looks like a fairy ring of land floating 
in the ocean, and adorned with tropical trees and plants. 

2. What are Coral Reefs? — Happily for the boys and 
girls of the present day, this subject, with other equally 
fascinating branches of science, has now been studied by 
naturalists, who give us the rich results of their labors. 
It seems scarcely possible that the dainty, beautiful corals 
which we have just examined can have anything to do 
with the making of islands, but nevertheless we find this 
to be the fact. Coral reefs are vast masses of coral which 
have grown in tropical oceans, where there is a strong 
current in the warm water. Their formation must have 
been slow, yet they sometimes extend hundreds of miles. 
Many parts of our solid continents are now thought to 
have been formed from coral reefs. 

3. The Beginning of a Reef. — Let us now try to picture 
to ourselves the beginning of one of these reefs, and by 
following its growth step by step we may at last under- 
stand how it has been formed. There are hills and val- 



44 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

leys on the bottom of the ocean as well as on the land. 
We will fancy that some young coral polyps which have 
been swimming about in the sea settle on the sides of one 
of these hills, and begin to grow and spread all around the 
hill. They will increase also by the deposit of eggs until 
they form a circular wall. 

4. As the coral wall grows, the lower polyps and the 
inner ones die, their skeletons forming a solid foundation 
for all that grow above them. There may be only about 
an inch of living coral on the outside of the reef. 




a, a, Surface of the Water; b, Natnral Bed of the Ocean ; c, e, Coral Formation : 
d, Lagoon. 



5. How the Lagoon is Formed. — These walls rise nearly 
straight, and you will see that in doing so they enclose a 
circular basin of quiet water, and now you can under- 
stand why it is that a coral island mostly has a lake in 
the centre, as is shown in Fig. 27. The lakes are called 
lagoons. 

6. Different Varieties of Coral found at Different Depths. 
— The bottom of the wall is formed of brain-coral and 
other solid kinds which live only in deep water, and these 
die when a certain height is reached. The formation of 



CORAL REEFS. 45 

the new island does not stop with their death, however. 
The wall having now reached the proper height to suit 
branching corals, which require shallower water, their 
young polyps will settle upon it, and finish the structure. 
We might suppose a reef formed of branching corals 
would be open and unsubstantial, but in their growth the 
branches are thickly interlaced. The spaces between them 
become filled with substances floating in the ocean, and 
with pieces of coral which are broken from the reef by 
the fierce dashing of the waves. These fragments of 
coral suffer no serious injury by breaking, but if lodged 
in some favorable spot they continue to grow, and to- 
gether they form a solid mass, stronger, perhaps, than any 
stone masonry. 

V. The Sea not too Rough for the Polyps. — The outer 
edge of the wall is steep and abrupt. Soundings taken 
just outside show very deep water. In this portion of 
the wall the corals live and thrive, always supplied with 
clear water, and an abundance of food brought by the 
rapid current. The breakers dash against it with such 
fury that apparently the hardest rock must in time yield 
to the tremendous force of the waves. But, strange as 
it may appear, the soft jelly-like bodies of the polyps give 
to the reef the power of resisting the billows. 

8. The Inner Surface of the Wall. — The inner surface of 
the wall slopes gently to the land, and being washed by 
quiet waters often containing sand and mud, it is not 
favorable to the growth of polyps. Still, there are certain 
kinds of coral which thrive within the lagoons, and some 
of these are exceedingly brilliant and beautiful. 

9. How the Island is Raised above the Sea. — The coral 
polyps die before they reach the surface of the ocean, as 
no corals can live out of water. The remainder of the 



46 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

island is built up by shells, pieces of broken coral, sea- 
weed, and other floating materials which are washed upon 
it, and raise the wall higher and higher. The never- 
ceasing action of the waves grinds up these shells and 
broken coral, until at last they form a soil of sand and 
mud which is now ready to receive any seeds that may 
float on the water or be brought by the winds and the 
birds. The seeds take root in the new soil, and young 
plants begin to appear on the glistening white surface. 

10. The Vegetation. — Cocoa-nut-trees are often the first 
to appear among these plants, the large nuts floating upon 
the ocean having lodged on the shores and found the 
warmth and moisture well suited to their growth. Other 
kinds of palms and pineapples also grow on these reefs. 

11. The Soil. — The soil is thin, seldom being more than 
six or eight inches deep, but as the top of the reef is 
somewhat open and honey-combed, the crevices become 
filled with the soil we have described, and they make good 
holding places for the roots of large trees. As the plants 
drop their leaves and decay, the soil is enriched little by 
little, and the island is fitted for the home of various ani- 
mals and birds, which in some mysterious manner find 
their way to these lonely spots far out at sea. In time 
our coral reef may become a beautiful tropical island 
fringed with waving trees and plants, and inhabited by 
man. 

12. Atolls. — These circular reefs are called "atolls," and 
they seldom form complete rings. There is generally an 
opening into the lake on the side most sheltered from the 
wind. A safe harbor in mid-ocean is thus made, in which 
vessels may take shelter, but it requires an expert navi- 
gator to pass the perils at its entrance. In Fig. 28 is a 
pretty little coral island with ships in its lagoon. If a 



CORAL REEFS. 



47 



lake is entirely enclosed by the coral wall, it may in 
time be changed to fresh water by the rains that fall 
into it. 

13. Theory of Coral Reefs. — Coral reefs often extend to 
a depth of many hundred feet below the surface of the 
ocean, and formerly persons were puzzled to know how 
they could have been formed in such deep water, as reef- 
buiiding corals do not thrive at a greater depth than one 
hundred and twenty or one hundred and eighty feet. 




This puzzling question was settled by the late Charles 
Darwin, who first showed that coral islands occur where 
there has been a gradual sinking of the bottom of the 
ocean. The theory is now generally adopted that as 
the growing reef rose in height, the foundation sank 
slowly, and in this way the upward growth was partly 
counteracted; consequently, the proper depth of water 
was secured, and the reef appeared to be stationary, 
whereas it was really growing upward. 

14. When a coral reef rises above the surface of the 



48 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

ocean, we may know that the coral, which grew under 
water, has been lifted above the level of the sea by a rising 
of the ocean bed since the reef was formed. 

15. Fringing Reefs. — "Fringing reefs" are those which 
extend along the shores of continents and islands. There 
are usually openings or breaks in fringing reefs directly 
opposite the mouths of rivers and fresh-water streams, as 
the corals cannot endure currents carrying mud or sed- 
iment. Perhaps the grandest reef to be found in any part 
of the world is the one extending along the north-east 
coast of Australia. It is nearly one thousand miles in 
length, and proves to us that the helpless coral polyps 
have played no trifling part in the formation of our earth. 
All they have accomplished has been done merely by their 
living and growing. 



CTENOPHOKA. 49 



YIII. 

CTENOPHORA. 
DAINTY MORSELS FOR THE WHALES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, CCELENTEKATA : CLASS, ACTINOZOA. 

1. Ctenophora. — Did you ever think how hard it would 
be to describe a soap-bubble to a person who had never 
seen one? It would even be difficult to paint a picture 
that would convey an idea of its delicate beauty. It will 
be quite as difficult to describe to you a class of animals 
almost as fairy-like as soap-bubbles, although they swim 
about in the ocean, and are honored with the high-sound- 
ing name of ctenophora. 

2. How shall we Pronounce the Word? — At the first 
glance ctenophora may look like a hard word, but drop 
the "c," and you w T ill find it quite easily pronounced — 
"te-noph'-o-ra." Were it possible for you once to see 
these charming creatures darting about in their native 
sea-water, their name henceforth would have a pleasant 
sound, and even a pleasant look, recalling to your minds 
lovely images of floating balloons and fairy bubbles. 

3. How shall we see Them? — Ctenophora are too small 
and inconspicuous to be seen at the distance we usually are 
from the surface of the ocean, so the best way to observe 
them is in a large glass jar. On a calm day a jar of water 
dipped from the surface of the ocean may contain some 
of these beautiful creatures, although perhaps several jar- 
fuls will have to be raised before the search is successful. 

3 



50 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

4. Transparency of the Ctenophora. — Upon looking close- 
ly at the little captives you will find them to be jelly-like, 
melon-shaped bodies, with bands running from end to end 
like the ribs on a melon. They are almost transparent, 
and if it were not for the prismatic colors that play upon 




Fi£. 29. — Ctenophora. 



their sides as they glide through the water we could 
scarcely see them. If the ctenophora sporting about in 
the jar should swim in between you and any object be- 
yond the jar, you can see the object distinctly through 
their transparent bodies. Fig. 29 shows the form of one 
of the ctenophora, but it gives no idea of its delicacy. 



CTENOPHORA. 51 

5. The Soft Bodies. — The soft bodies of the ctenophora 
and their manner of life may remind you of jelly-fishes. 
Still, their structure is far more complicated, as we may 
observe through the clear substance of which the body 
is composed. When taken from the sea- water they lose 
their shape, and nothing is left but a film which is almost 
invisible. 

6. Jelly-like Animals could Live only in Water. — The 
thought has perhaps already occurred to you that such 
animals as these, with jelly-like bodies, could live no- 
where but in the water. Many of them have no means 
of pursuing or of catching their prey, and they obtain 
only such food as is floated to them by currents in the 
water. 

1. Food. — Although the ctenophora look so fairy-like, 
they devour a large number of animals, and they seem to 
prefer their own kindred. The mouth is at the upper 
end of the body, and when it is open, the food floats in 
and is quickly digested. In addition to the cavities nec- 
essary for digesting food, there is a set of canals within 
the body for the circulation of water. 

8. How Ctenophora Swim. — The ctenophora swim about 
with exquisite grace, and yet they have no arms, no legs, 
no fins, to swim with. What need have they of any such 
organs ? Their cilia are quite sufficient (the word cilia, 
you remember, means eyelashes). Those eight stripes we 
see running from one end to the other in Fig. 29 are 
bands of muscles on which are arranged comb-like fringes 
of cilia, w T hich wave rapidly in the w r ater, and give to the 
animal its lively motions. Indeed, it seems as if the fairy- 
like creature could not keep still. How can it keep still 
w r hen these impatient cilia are striking the w T ater? They 
send the little thing round and round, darting up and 



52 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

down, till we wonder which way it will go next. The 
cilia are worked by muscles under the control of the ani- 
mal, and are to the ctenophora what oars are to a row- 
boat. 

9. Study of Cilia. — These eight bands of cilia add greatly 
to the beauty of the dainty creatures. Their rapid motion 
separates the rays of light that fall upon them, and pro- 
duces down each band a flash of rainbow colors. In fact, 
the cilia are so important and characteristic a feature of 




Fig;. 30. — Cilia on the Gills of a Mussia. 



the ctenophora that we should do well to become per- 
fectly familiar with them. The appearance of these hair- 
like organs is much the same wherever they are found, 
and they show very distinctly on the gills of the mussel 
(Fig. 30). These gills are fringed with countless cilia, 
which under a microscope may be seen in rapid motion, 
producing a continual current of water in one direction. 
Their motion is regular, like that of the heart. The little 
plates forming the gill lie side by side naturally, and 
unless we looked very closely we might think the gills 
consisted of only one piece. The plates are pulled apart 
in the drawing to show the cilia more distinctly. 



CTENOPHORA. 53 

10. It is interesting to notice the various uses of cilia in 
the different positions in which they occur. Sometimes, as 
in the ctenophora, they propel the animal by striking the 
water like a multitude of tiny oars. Sometimes they sur- 
round the mouth, "and by their incessant action produce 
a small whirlpool, into which the food is sucked." In 
other cases their office seems to be to supply the needful 
air by keeping up a continual current of water, which 
contains as much air as these animals need. On the other 
hand, we must not imagine that cilia are confined to the 
lower animals living in the water. They serve important 
uses even in our own bodies. For instance, the air-pas- 
sages leading to our lungs are lined with cilia, which are 
constantly lashing the air and beating back particles of 
dust and other impurities which it contains. Were it not 
for the cilia, these impurities would reach our lungs, and 
produce irritation there. 

11. Food for Whales. — The beautiful ctenophora, idly 
sporting in the water, and seeming to have no aim but 
enjoyment, are far from useless, since they form the chief 
food of the Greenland whale. Do you not think these 
are dainty morsels for whales to feed upon ? There must, 
however, be a good deal of nourishment in their trans- 
parent bodies, for the whales grow enormously large and 
fat. No doubt it takes a great many ctenophora to make 
a meal for the monsters. Large shoals of them are met 
with in arctic seas, and as the whales swim through the 
water with their great mouths hanging open, they catch 
the ctenophora on their whalebone fringes, and swallow 
a mouthful at a time. 

12. Their Abundance in the Ocean. — In certain parts of 
the Arctic Ocean the water is of a grass-green hue, and 
is quite opaque. It is commonly spoken of as the " green 



54: ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

water," and its peculiar appearance is caused by the im- 
mense number of ctenophora it contains. These frolic- 
some little beings, living so thick and close as to color the 
water, are too small to be seen without a microscope. The 




Fig. 31. — Ctenophora and Phosphorescent Fishes. 

rose-colored idyia, another species of ctenophora, is three 
or four inches long. It sometimes occurs in such numbers 
as to tinge large patches of the sea with its rosy color. 

13. Phosphorescence. — All the ctenophora are phospho- 
rescent. They are abundant on our own coasts, and are 



CTEXOPHORA. 



DO 



often left on the shore at low tide, yet their beauty can 
only be seen as they glide daintily through the water. 
The eggs of some species escape singly, others are laid in 
strings or masses of jelly, and the young ones hatch out 
in the same form as their parents. 

14. Beauty of the Ctenophora. — A jarful of sea -water 
dipped from the end of a pier one bright summer day 
contained four ctenophora, and made a whole party glad 
for an hour. It was a great delight to watch these little 
creatures darting hither and thither, sinking and rising 
again, or resting on their oars, according to their own 
sweet will. Sometimes we could 

not see them at all, though we 
knew they were in the clear water 
before us; then a flash of bright 
color appeared, and we followed 
their devious course by their glit- 
ter and sparkle. 

15. Pleurobrachia, — One of these 
captive ctenophora was smaller 
than the others, and more nearly 
spherical. It belonged to the spe- 
cies Pleurobrachia, which you will 
see represented in Fig. 32. This 
wtfs our especial favorite. At times 

it would throw out two long, slender tentacles, which were 
ornamented on one side with delicate tendrils. Upon 
some sudden fancy of the animal these tentacles were 
instantly drawn in out of sight, while at the next moment 
they were floating behind it for nearly half a yard. One 
might have supposed the exquisite creature was amusing 
itself by trying in how many different ways its tentacles 
could be curved and twisted 




Fiir. 32. — Pleurobrachia. 



56 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



IX. 

STAR-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ECHINODERMATA : CLASS, ASTEROIDEA. 

1. Favorite Haunts of the Star -fishes. — Those of you 
who go to the sea-shore in summer have perhaps discov- 
ered that star-fishes like rocky coasts the best. They are 
found most abundantly where the crevices between the 
stones afford good hiding-places for themselves and for 
the animals upon which they feed. They do not thrive 
upon muddy or sandy bottoms, and boys and girls hunt- 
ing for curiosities upon such beaches are often disap- 
pointed to find no star-fishes. 

2. They spend most of their time creeping over the 
rocks, though they love to be where the tide will ripple 
over their bodies and keep them well supplied with sea- 
water, which they depend upon for their oxygen. Those 
poor, half-dead star-fishes which we sometimes see in a 
pitiful condition on the beach will often revive if placed 
in sea-water, or, if left on the beach, the next high wave 
may restore them by carrying them out to sea again. 

3. How shall we Preserve them? — Our dried specimens 
are yellow, but when alive, star-fishes are of a dull-red 
color, sometimes tinged with purple. They seem plump 
and fat on being taken from the ocean, but they are only 
puffed up with water, and if you watch them closely you 
will see the water oozing out all over the back. No doubt 



STAR-FISHES. 57 

you have learned how tedious and discouraging it is to 
attempt to dry star - fishes. You have perhaps been 
obliged to go home, as many before you have done, and 
leave them still drying in the sun. It may help you to 
know that a very good way is to dip them once or twice 
in boiling water before putting them in the sun or in a 
warm oven to dry. 




Fig. 33. — Under Side of Ray, showing the Hollow Tubes and the 
Limestone Plates of the Skeleton. 

4. Broken Arms replaced. — Our common star -fish has 
five hollow rays or arms, extending from the centre like 
a star. If any of these rays are broken off, others grow 
in their places. It is a singular fact that these animals 
can break themselves to pieces, or throw off their rays, 
when they become alarmed. 

■ 5. The Skeleton. — Star-fishes glide along smoothly, and 
without apparent effort. They bend their bodies into 
various shapes to fit the inequalities of the surface over 
which they creep, and in order to do this they require a 
movable skeleton. See how beautifully Nature has pro- 
vided for this necessity by forming the skeleton of thin 
limestone plates, so joined as to admit of slight motion. 
These plates are represented in Fig. 33, which is the under 
side of a ray, and the end having been broken off, we can 
see the two hollow tubes which the ray contains. 
3* 



58 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

6. The Upper Surface — The Madreporic Body. — Look now 
at the upper side of your star-fish, and notice the knobs 
and short spines with which it is covered. If the ani- 




Fig. 34. — Star-fishes (Lower One showing Under Side and Tube-feet). 



mal is alive we may see between these spines tiny forks, 
with two prongs that are constantly snapping. The 
use of the forks is not perfectly understood ; they some- 



STAR-FISHES. 



59 



times catch small prey, and they may also be useful in 
removing particles of matter that would otherwise choke 
up the pores on the surface. The first thing your bright 
eyes will discover is probably the round spot near the 
middle of the back and between two of the rays. That 
is called the " madreporic body," and it is an interesting 
object. Examine it with your microscopes, and try to 
think what those tiny holes can be intended for. It must 




Fie. 35. — Dining upon an Oyster. 



be a sieve. Yes, it is a sieve, admitting water into tubes 
which run to the end of each ray. During life the madre- 
poric body is bright-colored, and it strains all the water 
that enters the tubes, so there is no danger of their be- 
coming choked. 

7. Singular Manner of Feeding*. — Now if we turn our 
star-fish over we shall find its mouth on the under side. 
This is an important organ, too, for star-fishes busy them- 
selves continually with eating. They are especially fond 



60 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

of live oysters and clams, and they have the oddest way 
of eating them. They turn their stomachs right out into 
the oyster shell, surrounding the soft body of the oyster, 
and sucking it up. When the star-fish feeds it not only 
bends its rays into a cup shape to hold on to its prey, 
like the one in the picture dining upon an oyster, but 
multitudes of tiny suckers spring up to help, and the prey 
finds escape impossible. Oysters generally close their 
shells so quickly in time of danger that we cannot under- 
stand why they should allow the sluggish star-fishes to 
catch them napping. It has been suggested that the star- 
fish drops into the shell some liquid which paralyzes the 
oyster, but this no one knows. So you see the star-fish, 
without any tools, is able to help itself to raw oysters. 

8. Tube-feet. — The way in which star-fishes walk is also 
curious. It will repay you well to examine the next living 
star-fish you find, and notice the odd manner in which it 
glides along. On the under surface of each ray is a 
double row of hollow tubes, which squirm and grope 
around like a multitude of worms. As these are the or- 
gans by which star-lishes move, they are called tube-feet. 
They are lengthened and enlarged, much as the tentacles 
of sea-anemones are, by filling them with water. For this 
purpose each tube -foot is connected with a little round 
bag filled with water from the water-tube running down 
the ray. When the bag contracts it forces water into the 
foot, which reaches forward and attaches itself by a round 
sucker on the end to the surface over which the animal 
wishes to move. In this way one sucker after another is 
stretched out to cling to the surface, and as the suckers 
are shortened again by expelling the water, the body is 
dragged forward. Fig. 36 shows the interior of one of 
the rays. The tube-feet, g, are shrunken up quite short, 



STAR-FISHES. 



61 



which makes the water-bags, A, all the larger. Notice the 
mouth, a, the stomach, b, and the intestine, c. 







Fig, 36. — Interior of Ray. 

a, mouth; &, stomach; c, intestine; d, upper surface; e, limestone plates; 
/, ovary ; g, tube-feet ; h, \vater-ba<;s. 

9. The double rows of tube-feet are set in a deep groove. 
In your dried specimens the tube-feet have shrivelled up 
and fallen away, and in the grooves you will probably see 
a number of delicate plates arranged side by side in two 
rows. These are called "ambulacral plates," and they 
are sufficiently far apart to allow water to flow out be- 
tween them from the water-bags into the tube-feet. No- 
tice this in Fig. 33. On the outer edge of the rays is a 
number of stiff spines. 

10. Other Organs. — Star -fishes have a liver and intes- 
tines. Their organs do not lie wholly in the central por- 
tion, but extend into the five hollow arms. They also have 
nerves, which surround the mouth and pass down each 
arm, where they end in a red eye-speck. This arrangement 
gives to star-fishes five eyes. They are not perfect eyes, 
however, and it is probable that they can see but little. 
Star-fishes are said to be careful of their eggs, carrying 
them with the suckers near the mouth. 

11. Destruction of Oysters. — The star-fish's fondness for 
fresh oysters is a serious matter to the oyster-grower, and 



62 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

causes him to lose large quantities of his valuable prop- 
erty. It is estimated that the damage every year to the 
oyster-beds between Staten Island and Cape Cod amounts 
to $100,000. Large numbers of star-fishes sometimes ap- 
pear suddenly and unexpectedly upon the shores. They 
seem to be washed in from the deep sea, and, settling 
upon the oysters, they begin their work of destruction, 
and consume many bushels in a short time. These attacks 
occur chiefly in the latter part of summer or early in the 
fall, and are much dreaded by the owners of oyster-beds. 

12. Some Uses of the Star -fish. — The oysterman has 
learned the value of these destructive pests for manure, 
and those dredged from oyster-beds are now saved for 
fertilizing purposes. We might also attribute to the star- 
fishes a certain usefulness as scavengers of the ocean, 
since they eat all sorts of animal substances, dead as well 
as living, and do their full share towards keeping the 
waters pure. 

13. Some kinds of star-fishes have long feathery arms, 
and are much more beautiful than our common ones 
which we have been studying. 



SEA-URCIIIXS. 



63 



X. 
kEA-URCHIXS. 

sub-kingdom:, echinodermata : class, echtnoidea. 

1. Sea-urchins. — AVhat funny, prickly creatures the sea- 
urchins are ! A person might easily mistake them for 
green chestnut-burs scattered on the beach, and, glancing 
up hastily, he might almost expect to find the overhanging 




Fig. 3*7. — Under Surface op a Sea-urchin, showing Rows of Suckers 
among the Spines. 



branches of a great chestnut-tree. By this time, however, 
the prickly green things may have stretched out their pur- 
ple suckers and begun to drag themselves over the beach. 
This motion prompts us to place them among the animals. 



64 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

2. How are they like Star-fishes? — We have seen the 
same method of travelling practised by our old friends 
the star -fishes, yet surely these round creatures can be 
nothing like star -fishes. But that is just what they are 
like, and I think we shall soon discover a close relation- 
ship between the two. We might almost say that the sea- 
urchin (Fig. 37) is a star-fish that has got up in the world, 
and, folding its rays together side by side, has concluded 
to live henceforth shut up in its beautiful round box. 




Fig. 38. — Shell of a Sea-urchin without Spines. 

3. The Shells. — We sometimes find the empty white 
shells of sea-urchins which have lost their coating of 
prickles, or spines, as they are properly called. The shells 
are very elegant, being scarcely thicker than an egg-shell, 
and ornamented with rows of dots and knobs with open 
lace-work between. This shell is not one globular piece, 
as you might suppose, but it is made up of several hun- 
dred little plates exquisitely fitted together, and forming 
a true mosaic, as seen in Fig. 38. On the inside of the 
shell you can easily see the lines where these plates are 



SEA-URCHINS. 



65 



joined, and you will surely be charmed with the double 
rows of lace-work which divide the shell into five equal 
sections. Let us see what they mean. 

4. Plan of the Sea-urchin. — If we should place a star- 
fish on the table with its mouth down, and bend its rays 
backward until they meet together on top, and the edges 
of the rays touch each other, we should have the gen- 
eral plan of a sea-urchin. Do not imagine that star-fishes 
ever do turn into sea-urchins. This is merely intended to 
show you the similarity of their structure. 

5. According to this arrangement the double rows of 
perforated plates would represent the middle of the rays 
of the star-fish where 

the tube-feet are situ- 
ated, while the broad 
belt of knobs corre- 
sponds to the strip of 
spines on both edges 
of the ray. The 
mouth would be un- 
derneath, and you 
would of course look 
for the five eye-specks 

on the top where the Fig> 39 ._s E ction of a Sea-urchin. 

ends of the rays meet. a> m(ra th; c, stomach; d, intestine; o, anus; 

You will also find the 
madreporic body at 
the top, a little on one side. This small sieve, which is 
so interesting in the star-fishes, performs the same service 
for the urchin, and prevents the entrance of any sand or 
other solid substance into the five tubes that pass under 
the holes in the shell. Through these holes are pro- 
truded the double rows of tube-feet, just like those we 




v, heart ; /, madreporic body ; g, main water- 
tube ; p, tube-feet ; z, spines. 



66 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

have studied in the star-fish, and they are worked in the 
same manner. It adds much to the beauty and interest of 
the shell to know that these lovely fine dots are openings 
through which the tube-feet are supplied with water from 
inside the shell. In the diagram (Fig. 39) the madreporic 
body is shown at/, and the tube, g, carries water to supply 
the tube-feet and their little water-bags, which are shown 
at p. Sea-urchins move by means of their tube-feet, which 
may be lengthened so as to extend far beyond the spines. 

6. Growth of the Shell. — The shell fits the animal ex- 
actly in its infancy, and must still serve it in old age, for 
urchins never cast off their coats as crabs and lobsters 
do. Being formed of many small pieces, the shell grows 
a little all over. Each plate is surrounded by living flesh. 
This flesh secretes lime from the sea-water and deposits it 
round the edge of the plates, thus increasing the size of 
the shell uniformly. After sea-urchins die the spines drop 
off; the shell is so frail that it too is soon broken, the 
plates falling apart. 

7. The Spines. — Do not omit to look at the spines with 
your microscopes, and see what beautifully carved col- 
umns they are (Fig. 40). Falling about on the back of 
the urchin, they remind one of a sadly neglected grave- 
yard, with its tottering monuments. Each spine is hol- 
lowed at the end to fit a knob on the shell. This forms 
a perfect ball-and-socket joint, which is supplied with 
delicate muscles to move the spines. As the creature 
travels along, the spines are constantly in motion, and 
they look as if they too wanted to help. In some species 
the spines are very large, and are used for slate-pencils. 
We should think it quite luxurious to have such artistic 
pencils, yet many boys and girls in out-of-the-way places, 
especially where fishing -vessels bring home curiosities 



SEA-URCHINS. 



67 



Fig. 40. — Spine of Sea- 
urchin, MAGNIFIED. 
a, cross section. 



from foreign shores, have puzzled over their examples and 
written their copies with these elegantly fluted spines. 

8. The Teeth.— Did you no- 
tice the white spot in the 
middle of Fig. 37, also the 
pointed beak near the top of 
Fig. 38 ? Both of these spots 
show the five white teeth 
which come together in a 
point, and may be extended 
beyond the shell just as they 
are in Fig. 38. You will ob- 
serve what a great step for- 
ward the sea-urchin has 
made. We have found noth- 
ing like teeth before in the 
lowly creatures we have been 
studying, and here is the ur- 
chin, armed with five hard 
white teeth, having sharp cutting edges like a rat's teeth. 
Each tooth has a separate jaw of its own, and is worked 
by its own muscles. This singular arrangement has at- 
tracted much attention, and from the shape of the jaws 
and teeth it is known as "Aristotle's lantern." 

9. Internal Organs. — The sea-urchin is well supplied 
with organs (as we may see in Fig. 39) — the mouth, a, 
the stomach, c, the coiled intestine, d, and the anal open- 
ing, o — whereas our studies heretofore have been about 
animals with a simple sac for a stomach, and all the refuse 
of their food was returned through the mouth. This high- 
ly favored individual has also a heart, v, and blood-vessels, 
although the blood which passes through them is quite 
different from that of higher animals. 




ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




,\ 



Fig. 41. — Sand-dollar. 



10. Sea-urchins as an Article of Food. — The sea-urchins 
of the Mediterranean are larger than ours, and are used 
for food, either raw as we eat oysters, or boiled. They 

were a favorite dish with 
the ancient Greeks and 
Romans. Bunches of 
their eggs are also offer- 
ed for sale as food in the 
Italian cities. The eggs 
pass out of the shell 
through small openings 
near the madreporic body, 
and they are often seen 
on top of the shell, sur- 
rounded by spines which 
have been drawn together 
to hold them. 

11. Echinoderm Defined. — Young people like to use the 
proper names for things, and now that we know all this 
about the sea-urchin we will give it its right name, the 
echinus. In your reading you will also meet with the word 
echinoderm, and it will give you pleasure to recognize it 
as an old acquaintance. Echinoderm means spiny-skinned. 
It is the general name given to star-fishes, sea-urchins, and 
their relations, most of which have prickly coverings. 

12. Boring in Rocks. — The echinus has a curious habit 
of boring holes in hard rocks. It sinks in the hole for a 
considerable distance, and looks well satisfied with its 
snug retreat. It is not understood how the rock becomes 
worn away, unless it is by a rotary movement of the 
body. Constant dropping, we know, wears a stone, and 
constant turning and twisting may do the same. There 
is no doubt the hole is made by the animal which occu- 



SEA-URCHINS. 69 

pies it, as it fits exactly, whether the occupant be large or 
small. 

13. It is amusing to watch the echinus in shallow water 
drag itself along by its tube-feet, and sometimes hide itself 
by drawing together pieces of sea-weed and gravel. 



Fig. 42. — Keyhole-urchin. 

14. Varieties of Sea-urchins. — In visiting a good museum 
you will be surprised to see how many different varieties 
of these creatures there are. Some species are flattened, 
and pass by the name of sand-dollars (Fig. 41), keyhole- 
urchins (Fig. 42), etc. During life the skeletons of these 
animals were covered with skin, and furnished with a fur- 
ry coat of little spines and small tube-feet. 



70 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XI. 

CRINOIDS, OR STONE-LILIES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ECHINODERMATA : CLASS, CItlNOIDEA. 

1. Where Crinoids grow. — While examining the sea-ur- 
chins at the museum do not fail to hunt up the crinoids 
also. We shall have to be content with this way of study- 
ing crinoids, as the living ones grow on rocky beds in the 
deep ocean. They are obtained only by dredging, and 
few of us will ever have an opportunity to see them. 

2. Why they are called Stone -lilies. — Crinoids are at- 
tached during the whole or a part of their lives to the sea- 
bottom by means of a jointed stalk which is so flexible as 
to bend freely in any direction. At the upper end of the 
stalk is the cup-shaped body, with its waving arms, which 
may be folded together like a flower-bud, or spread open 
like the petals of a full-blown lily. Swaying to and fro 
in the bright water, this curious animal closely resembles 
a flower tossed by a gentle breeze, and as it really has a 
hard skeleton throughout, c: stone-lily " is not a bad name 
for it. 

3. Crinoids compared to Star-fishes. — Let us imagine a 
star-fish supported in this way upon the end of a long 
stalk, and we shall have a pretty good idea of a crinoid. 
In comparing the two we must invert the star-fish, how- 
ever, as the mouth of a crinoid is on the upper surface, 
whereas in the other echinoderms the mouth is underneath. 



CRINOIDS, OR STONE-LTLIES. 



71 



The tube -feet, like- 
wise, are on the up- 
per surface of the 
arms, but they are 
not used for travel- 
ling about as the 
tube - feet of other 
echinoderms are. 
The grooves contain- 
ing them are covered 
with cilia which cre- 
ate currents of water 
towards the mouth, 
and carry to it the 
minute plants and 
animals upon which 
the crinoid feeds. 

4. Skeleton of Cir- 
cular Plates. — Like 
star - fishes and sea- 
urchins, these cousins 
of theirs secrete lime 
to form a solid frame- 
work for their bod- 
ies. The lime is de- 
posited in circular 
plates, which are sur- 
rounded and held to- 
gether by living flesh, 
so that they bend ea- 
sily. You can detect 
these circular plates 
in any part of the ac- 




Fig. 43. — A Living Crinoid. West Indies. 



72 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

conipanying picture. Indeed, crinoids may be known by 
the little rings of which they are composed. 

5. Free Swimming Crinoids. — In some crinoids, as the 
Comatida, or feather-star, the animal is fastened to the 
ground only when young. Later in life it drops from the 
stalk, and is free after this to travel about. It can swim 
through the water ; still, it prefers to remain quietly set- 
tled on some stone or sea -weed, waving its feathery, 
bright-red arms while it feeds upon the little animals 
floating around. It now resembles a star-fish more than 
ever, though it moves only by means of its flexible arms. 

6. An Ancient Family. — The family of crinoids is very 
ancient, and was perhaps at one time the most numerous 
family which inhabited the sea. Like some other old 
families, it has almost died out. There are but few spe- 
cies now living, and two or three of these have been only 
recently discovered by scientific explorers while dredging 
the deep waters of the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

1. Fossil Crinoids. — Fossil remains of crinoids are abun- 
dant in rocks, showing that in past ages they must have 
lived in great numbers. In France large beds of rock are 
formed of their remains, and the same is true of many 
other parts of Europe and North America. The circular 
plates of the crinoids were so loosely held together by 
flesh that when the animal died they fell apart, and 
these little disks which are now found in the rocks look 
like button - moulds ornamented with beautiful patterns 
and markings. 

8. See how the crinoid stems are piled upon each other 
in the limestone rock (Fig. 44), and notice the little hole 
in the middle of each. Their arrangement in the rock 
(Fig. 45) is much more orderly. No wonder that such 



CKINOIDS, OR STONE-LILIES. 73 

fine old crinoids as this should have been mistaken for 
petrified flowers. 

9. How Fossils came to he in the Rocks. — Perhaps you 
will wonder how animals can be embedded in hard rocks. 




Fig. 44. — Crinoidal Limestone. 

To understand this we must remember that many of our 
rocks are formed of sand or mud, which has become hard 
from the constant pressure of other layers of sand and 
mud that have accumulated above them. Most of these 
layers were formed underneath the sea. The rocks must 
have been in this soft condition when the animals died and 
were buried in them. As the rocks hardened, the solid 
parts of the animals were preserved in a stony bed, the 
hard rock fitting closely into every crack and cranny. 
When these rocks are split open we sometimes find the 
remains of the animal on one side of the crack, and a 
perfect impression on the other. These petrified remains 
are called fossils, and they tell us a fascinating story of 
the curious animals and plants that lived long ago. 
4 



74 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

10. Records of our Earth's History. — The true nature of 
fossils, and the causes which placed them in solid rocks, 
interested the poets and philosophers long before ' the 
Christian era. It is only within the last century, how- 
ever, that they have been accepted as records of the his- 
tory of our earth. There are many animals now entirely 
extinct of whose existence we should know nothing but 




A Fossil Ckinoid. 



for their fossil remains. These relics of the past tell also 
of great changes from heat to cold in certain parts of 
the earth. For instance, the bones and teeth of ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses, and other animals that require 
warm climates are found in Siberia and in other cold 
countries, which shows that the polar regions were once 
much warmer than they are now. Again, on the other 



CTUNOIDS, OR STONE-LILIES. 75 

hand, remains of reindeer are found in Southern Europe, 
indicating extreme cold at another period in the earth's 
history. 

11. So you see these fossils have wonderful secrets to tell. 
Strange, old-fashioned secrets, for the formation of the 
rocks has been very slow, and the animals buried in them 
must have died thousands of years ago. Oinoids and 
corals and shells which live only in the ocean are found 
in a fossil condition in the interior of the dry land, prov- 
ing beyond a doubt that these parts of our earth must at 
one time have been beneath the sea. 

12. Is it not a lovely thought that these delicate crinoids 
which beautified the ocean long before we were here to 
admire them are not utterly destroyed, but that some of 
their skeletons have been preserved and are waiting for 
us in the gray old rocks, if only our tastes are simple and 
cultivated enough to find them out? 



'6 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XII. 

SEA-CUCUMBERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ECIIINODERMATA : CLASS, HOLOTHUROIDEA. 

1. The New England Coast favorable for Growth of Sea- 
animals. — The shore of Maine, you will remember, is very 
uneven, being broken by a succession of sharp promonto- 
ries and quiet bays, and skirted with a fringe of lovely 
islands. Here is an endless variety of bold rocky cliffs, of 
secluded caves and quiet little pools, with the pleasing 
surprise of occasional short sandy beaches. We can 
scarcely imagine a shore better fitted than this to suit the 
various tastes of the sea-creatures, and our search here is 
pretty sure to be rewarded by finding sea-anemones, star- 
fishes, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, etc., besides a variety of 
shell-fishes. Sea-weeds also grow in abundance, coloring 
the water with their beautiful tints. 

2. This is true of the New England coast as far south 
as Cape Cod, while below that point the sandy beaches of 
the Atlantic shore are not favorable for the growth of 
these animals. In addition to the loose sand which is 
washed up on the beach, the great number of rivers emp- 
tying fresh-water into the sea renders it still more unfa- 
vorable for their abode. 

3. Sea-cucumber. — As found on the beach, a sea-cucum- 
ber would remind you of a leather bag, somewhat worm- 
like in form, with no hard shell, and marked with rows of 
warts down the sides like a cucumber (Fig. 46). The skin 



SEA-CUCUMBERS. 77 

is tough, yet it may expand and contract in such a way as 
to give these animals the curious power of changing their 
shape. 




Fig. 46. — Ska-cucumbers (Holothukians). 

4. Changes into Odd Shapes. — Upon watching the move- 
ments of a sea-cucumber you will be amused at the odd 
shapes into which it changes. It sometimes lengthens 
out its body like a worm, then drawing itself in tightly 
around the mouth, it swells out the other end of the body 
like a jug. Suddenly, tiring of this freak, it can make an 
hour-glass by contracting its body, as if a string were tied 
around the middle of it, with bulges above and below. 

5. Feathery Tentacles around the Mouth. — The tentacles 
of a sea-cucumber form a feathery fringe around the 
mouth. Their number is usually ten, and they have the 
same curious power of changing their shape that we have 
noticed in the body of the animal. The mouth may be 
distinctly seen in Fig. 47, which represents another spe- 
cies of sea-cucumber. It opens into a throat leading to 
the stomach. The long intestine passes to the other ex- 
tremity of the body. 



78 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



6. Sea-cucumber an Echinoderm. — From the general ap- 
pearance of the sea-cucumber you will scarcely suspect that 
it is one of the echinoderms, but, after watching it creep 
over the rocks, you can see the relationship. The tube- 
feet steal out noiselessly from the wart-like spots, as seen 
in Fig. 48, and the sea-cucumber travels just like a sea- 
urchin. The tube- 
feet are arranged on 
five muscular bands 
running from end to 
end, and dividing the 
body into five seg- 
ments. The spaces 
between the tube- 
feet correspond to 
the spaces which are 
covered with spines 
in the sea - urchin. 
One species of sea- 
cucumber has the 
tube-feet all collect- 
ed on the under side 
of the body (Fig. 49). 
It is called a " sea- 
orange" probably 
from the rough 
rounded markings on its surface. In those species which 
have no tube-feet the animal drags itself along by the aid 
of anchor-shaped spicules scattered through the skin. 

1. Resemblance to other Radiates. — The madreporic body 
is not on the outer surface, as it is in other members of the 
family. It opens upon a little canal in the interior, which 
supplies the tube-feet with water. Although hidden from 




Fig. 47. — Sea-cucumbers. 



SEA-CUCUMBERS. 



9 



our view, this tiny sieve niters the water perfectly, and 

allows no irritating particles to enter the tube. The only 

resemblance to the other Radiates which we detect in 

these animals is in 

the arrangement of J*b 6v 

their tentacles, 

their tube -feet, 

and muscular 

bands. 



8. Castaway s^ih 
Organs Replaced. <$h 
— The sea-cucumber 
does not break itself to 
pieces as the star -fish 
does, but it has a pecul- 
iarity quite as remark- 
able : when alarmed it 
throws away various 
organs from the inte- 
rior of the body, and, 
strange to say, these 
castaway organs are 
soon replaced by oth- 
ers. 

9. Holothurians — 
where found. — Sea-eu- 

i 7 ? ^ 7 Fig. 48. — A Sea-cucumber (Pentacta Fron- 

cumbers, or hocot/iu- ° D0SA \ v 

Hans, as they are prop- 
erly called, are most abundant in tropical seas, where they 
lie in the mud, or in shallow water, with their tentacles 
floating in expectation of prey. These creatures, as found 
on our shores, with their tentacles snugly stowed away, 
have no pretensions to beauty. One species, however, 




80 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



from the Pacific Ocean is described as being much hand- 
somer than the rest of its kind. The body is as trans- 
parent as glass, and of a lovely rose-color, with fine white 




stripes running 
from one end to 
the other, and 
crowned with a 
wreath of pure 
white tentacles. 
1 0. An Article 
of Food.— Anoth- 
er kind of sea- 
cucumber, called 
the trepang, is a 
favorite article 
of food with the 
Chinese. Many 
thousand junks are engaged in the trepang fisheries in the 
Indian Ocean. The trepangs are caught with a harpoon 
as they creep over the rocks and corals, or, when the 



Fig. 49. — Sea-orange. 



SEA-CUCUMBERS. 81 

water is shallow, they are brought up by divers. While 
yet alive the animals are thrown into boiling sea- water, 
and stirred with a long stick. After being boiled and 
flattened with stones, the Malay fishermen spread them 
on bamboo mats, where they are dried and smoked ; then 
they are packed and shipped to the Chinese market. 

11. Jelly Lumps in the Sea are often undeveloped Young.— 
In strolling on the sea-shore we often find little lumps of 
clear, transparent jelly left there by the retreating tide. 
Many of these jelly lumps are the undeveloped young of 
the class of animals we have been studying ; and if some 
time you should place a number of them in sea-water, and 
change the water frequently, you may have the pleasure 
of watching their development, and see what special forms 
they assume. These animals produce young ones in great 
abundance. It is necessary they should do so, or the race 
would soon die out, as they are devoured in such num- 
bers by fishes that only a small proportion of them live 
to maturity. 

12. Animals Preying upon Others. — The sea contains 
myriads of animals that prey upon each other, the larger 
ones eating the smaller ; and we can form but little idea 
of the amount of life continually sacrificed for the support 
of that which remains. It seems almost marvellous that 
any of the delicate little ones should escape the hungry 
hordes that pursue them in this eager struggle for life. 

4* 



82 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XIII. 

EARTH-WORMS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ANARTIIROPODA : CLASS, ANNELIDA. 

1. The Work of Earth-worms. — Who would have thought 
the little earth -worm had any work to do in the world, or 
was of other use than to bait fish-hooks ? Yet it has an 
important part to perform, and we are now told that the 
present fertile condition of the earth is largely due to the 
action of earth-worms. 

2. If this is the case, we must look at these industrious 
workers more carefully. Having selected a fine large 
specimen, let us put it on a piece of white paper, where it 
will show to advantage. 

3. A Land Animal. — This is the first animal we have 
examined which lives upon land. The simplest forms of 
life are always found in water, but from this point in our 
studies we shall sometimes take our specimens from the 
land, and the boys and girls all over the country will have 
an equal chance to obtain them. Even those who live in 
large cities can procure earth-worms. 

4. Study of the Illustration. — Let us study for a moment 
the illustration of an earth-worm that we have here. The 
worm itself is shown at Fig. 50, a ; b is a small part of it 
magnified so as to show the bristles pointing backward. 
The egg of the worm, c, is curiously constructed, having 
a valve at one end. In d we see the young worm, which 
has opened the valve and is coming out of the egg. 



EARTH-WORMS. 



83 



5. The Body made up of Segments — Articulates. — The 
body of the worm tapers towards each cud, so that we can 

scarcely tell the head from the tail un- 
less we watch a worm as it is creeping. 
Notice all those little rings across the 
body, and see how they slip in and 
out of each other as the worm moves. 
These rings can be drawn so close to- 
gether that a large worm will some- 
times make itself very short. Does 
this creature look like a Radiate? 
Certainly it does not, and we will now 
learn that all animals which have the 
body made up of rings or segments 
extending crosswise belong to a class 
called Articulates. 

6. The Bristles. — The earth - worm 
contains from one hundred to two 
hundred of these rings, each of which 
is furnished with four pairs of bris- 
tles pointing backward. You can 
easily feel them with your fingers. 
The bristles assist in crawling, and 

prevent the worm from slipping back as the rings are 
contracted and expanded. Still, the worm can creep back- 
ward when it desires to, and you may have noticed how 
rapidly these timid animals draw back into their holes. 

7. Organs. — Earth-worms have no distinct head or eyes. 
The mouth consists of two lips, and it has neither teeth 
nor tentacles. The semi-transparent body will enable you 
to see the food canal, extending from the mouth through 
the whole length of the worm, and enlarged in two places 
to form the crop and gizzard. Grains of sand and small 




Fie:. 50. — Earhi-worm. 



84 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

stones are often found within the strong gizzard, where 
they probably act as millstones in helping to grind the food. 
Birds, we know, are in the habit of swallowing stones for 
the same purpose. 

8. Blood-vessels— Ganglia. — We find no heart in these 
lowly creatures, but in its place a set of blood-vessels, 
which contract in such a way as to force the blood from 
the tail towards the head. It is supposed that earth- 
worms breathe by tubes opening upon the external sur- 
face of their bodies. Each one of the rings is supplied 
with a pair of nervous ganglia. This is true of all the 
Articulates. In animals of this group, each segment of the 
body is supplied with its own nervous ganglia. Ganglia 
are nerve-centres which consist of a mass of nerve -cells 
sending out nerve-fibres to other parts of the body. 

9. Food of Earth-worms. — Worms live in burrows in the 
ground, and in making them they swallow an almost in- 
credible amount of earth, out of which they take all the 
nourishing matter. They do not confine themselves, how- 
ever, to this coarse diet, but feed upon leaves and stems, 
from the edges of which they suck off little bits, having 
first drawn them into their burrows for a distance of two 
or three inches. Leaves are also dragged in for plugging 
their burrows, and when they cannot get leaves for this 
purpose they sometimes pile up heaps of stone to close the 
entrance. This work is all done during the night. 

10. The Burrows. — The burrows are often lined with a 
layer of fine earth, Avhich seems not only to strengthen the 
walls, but to form a smooth surface for the worm's body. 
At the bottom of the burrow there is generally an en- 
larged chamber which contains small stones, and here the 
worms pass the winter rolled up two or three together in 
a ball. 



earth:- wo rms. 85 

11. Castings made by Earth-worms. — Now, if we want to 
know what becomes of the earth which is swallowed by 
worms, we have but. to remember the rounded, worm-like 
heaps of earth called " castings " which are so thick among 
the grass, and on the untrodden parts of paths and drives, 
or in the flower-pots when a few worms have been dug up 
with our favorite house-plants. When a worm comes to 
the surface to empty its body it backs out of its hole, and 
ejects the earth which it has swallowed in spurts, first on 
one side, then on the other, until a little heap is formed, 
which hardens in drying. It is estimated that the quan- 
tity of fine earth thus carried to the surface in the course 
of a year would in many places form a layer one-fifth of 
an inch in thickness, amounting to a weight of more than 
ten tons on each acre. 

12. Vegetable Mould the Work of Earth-worms.— Have 
you ever noticed the layers of different-colored earth that 
are exposed in digging a well or a cellar ? The upper lay- 
er, you may remember, is mostly of a rich dark color. It 
consists of fine soil two or three inches deep, which has 
been sifted of stones and coarse materials, and is spoken 
of as "vegetable mould." This fertile layer is the work 
of earth-worms. 

13. Charles Darwin estimated that th© whole mass of 
vegetable mould which is spread over the surface of the 
earth passes through the bodies of worms once every four 
years, and in this way fresh masses of earth are constantly 
exposed to the influence of rain and wind. Worms also do 
much to enrich the soil by the great number of leaves and 
twigs drawn into their burrows. 

14. "The bones of dead animals, the harder parts of 
insects, the shells of land mollusks, leaves, twigs, etc., are 
before long all buried beneath the castings of worms, and 



86 ANIMAL LIFE IN. THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

are thus brought in a more or less decayed state within 
reach of the roots of plants." 

15. The Earth Ploughed by Worms.—" The plough is one 
of the most ancient and most valuable of man's inven- 
tions ; but long before he existed the land was, in fact, reg- 
ularly ploughed, and still continues to be thus ploughed, 
by earth-worms. It may be doubted whether there are 
many other animals which have played so important a 
part in the history of the world as have these lowly or- 
ganized creatures." The corals, indeed, have done more 
conspicuous work in constructing great reefs and islands, 
but these are mostly confined to the tropical zones. 

16. How Stones and Pavements Disappear. — It is no new 
discovery that pebbles and cinders and even large stones 
lying on the ground in a few years disappear. Neglected 
and unused pavements also become covered with soil, 
much of which has been raised by these busy little work- 
ers. Such every-day wonders escape the attention of most 
of us, but Charles Darwin, while pursuing his studies and 
observations upon various subjects, still found time to no- 
tice the worms. He and his sons watched them for more 
than thirty-five years before he published the book which 
gives these interesting facts. 

17. Destruction of Worms by Birds. — He says that worms 
often lie motionless for hours just beneath the mouth of 
their burrows, so that by looking closely their heads may 
be seen. If the earth or rubbish over the burrow be sud- 
denly removed, the worm retreats rapidly. This habit of 
lying near the surface leads to great destruction. At cer- 
tain seasons of the year the thrushes and blackbirds draw 
large numbers out of their holes. Watch a robin some 
morning hopping over the lawn, and see how it pecks, 
and pecks, at some object, finally bracing itself upon its 



EARTH-WORMS. 87 

tail, and pulling with all its might, as if determined to 
draw out its victim ; but the worm holds on so tightly by- 
its short bristles that it is no easy matter for the robin to 
capture it. 

1 8. Found all over the World.— Earth-worms exist all over 
the world, in cold countries as well as in warm ones, and 
even in small islands far out in the ocean. They require 
some moisture, and during very dry weather, or when the 
ground is frozen, they retire to a considerable depth. 

19. Large numbers of worms are often found dead on 
the pavements after a heavy rain. As earth-worms like 
moisture, it is scarcely probable these have been drowned. 
Darwin suggests that they were already sick, and that 
the flood may only have hastened their death. 



88 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XIV. 

CEABS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ARTIIROPODA : CLASS, CRUSTACEA. 

1. Crabs. — Crabs are curious creatures. At the first 
glance we can scarcely tell which is the head. Notice 
the position of the eyes (Fig. 51), and that will settle the 




question. Walking, as they do, forward, backward, and 
even sideways, with equal ease, it seems as if they too 
might be slightly puzzled about their formation, and so, 



CRABS. 89 

not stopping to decide which part is intended to go fore- 
most, they dart off on a venture, and in the oddest manner 
possible. 

2. Abundant on the Sea-shore. — They are so abundant on 
all our sea-shores that we rarely lift a bunch of sea-weed 
or poke among the rubbish there without disturbing their 
haunts, yet they scramble off and hide in the sand so quick- 
ly that we are not much wiser for their discovery. Let us 
pick up some cast-off shell and make a closer examina- 
tion. 

3. Cephalo-thorax. — The bodies of higher animals con- 
tain three principal cavities — the head, thorax, and abdo- 
men. In crabs, on the contrary, the head and thorax are 
so closely united that we cannot distinguish them, and they 
are covered by the same shell. The proper name for a 
head and thorax thus united is "ceph-a-lo-thorax." 

4. Two Principal Parts. — A crab, consequently, has two 
principal parts — the cephalo-thorax and the abdomen — 
each containing a number of segments of its own. To the 
cephalo-thorax are attached five pairs of jointed legs. The 
front pair are much larger than the others, and form the 
claws. The abdomen consists of six segments ; but it is 
small and inconspicuous, being folded under the cephalo- 
thorax. 

5. Stalked Eyes. — The compound eyes of crabs are on 
long stalks, and they may be turned in different directions 
or folded back into little grooves in the shell. 

6. The Gills. — Crabs breathe by gills, which are leaf- 
like plates so situated as to be readily bathed with water. 
They contain a dense net-work of blood-vessels, through 
whose thin walls the oxygen in the water finds its way 
and mixes with the blood to purify it. The crab's heart 
consists of a single contractile sac. 



90 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

7. How Crustaceans shed their Shells. — Crabs are often 
spoken of as crustaceans. The name will at once suggest 
animals having a hard crust. As this crust contains a 
number of pieces exactly fitted to one another, it has been 
compared to the armor worn by soldiers in olden times. 
The manner in which it is shed during the growth of the 
crab is curious and interesting. This hard shell never in- 
creases in size; therefore, as the crab grows its shell be- 
comes too small, and is cast off. The discarded shell has 
the eye-stalks and legs attached, and looks like the perfect 
animal. When the proper time for this change arrives, 
the body shrinks away from the shell, separating from it 
at all points, and the animal works its way out of its old 
case. The exhausted creature now remains quietly in 
some secluded place, increasing rapidly in size, until the 
soft skin again hardens into a new shell. 

8. This is a painful and perilous experience for the poor 
crabs. Occurring as it docs several times in the summer, 
their weak and unprotected bodies fall an easy prey to 
their enemies, and they are often devoured even by other 
crabs which happen to be in better plight. Now it is that 
they are known as " soft-shelled " crabs. 

9. Destroyed by other Animals. — Crustaceans, when ful- 
ly coated with mail, are strong and destructive, fighting 
among themselves as well as with other animals. They 
eat any small creatures that come in their way, whether 
living or dead. On the other hand, they themselves are 
destroyed by larger animals, and crustaceans form a great 
part of the food of star-fishes, sea-urchins, mollusks, and 
many kinds of fishes and birds ; consequently, great num- 
bers of them are killed before reaching their fall size. 
To protect the race from destruction by this loss of life, 
all crustaceans produce a large number of eggs. 



CRABS. 



91 




£31 

-Early Form of thk Crab. 



1 0. Young Crabs unlike the Old Ones. — Young crabs 
(Fig. 52) are so unlike the full-grown ones that natural- 
ists formerly thought they belonged to a different class 
of animals. While yet 

very small they rise 
to the surface of the 
water, and swim about 
freely, until, after pass- 
ing through several 
changes, the body be- 
comes large and heavy Fio . 52 
towards the head, and 

the young crabs, losing the power of swimming, sink to 
the bottom, where they hide for a time. As they gain 
in size and strength, and are ready to begin their new 
manner of living, they creep towards the shore, and most 
of them pass the rest of their days in shallow water among 
the sea-w T eed. 

11. Where they Live. — In the tropics some species live 
in the fresh water of brooks and rivers. Others live in 
the shades of damp forests ; but, when breeding-time ar- 
rives, they visit the sea-shore to deposit their eggs. The 
land -crabs of Jamaica even live on the mountain -toj)s, 
yet every year they yield to a longing for their old home, 
and come down to the shores of the Caribbean Sea to 
lay their eggs. This duty performed, they return again 
to the mountains. 

12. The Hermit-crab. — The hermit-crab (Fig. 53) is al- 
ways an object of interest. Unlike most other crustaceans, 
it has no shell to protect the soft body, and a tempting 
morsel is thus exposed. The hermit, conscious of its weak 
point, seeks shelter by taking possession of some spiral 
shell in which to place its soft abdomen. The hard claws 



92 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fiff. 53. — Hkumit-ckau. 



and the first two pairs of feet generally hang out over the 
edge cf the shell, which henceforth moves about upon the 

crab's back as if the 
two belonged together. 
The shorter hind -feet 
are roughened, thus en- 
abling the crab to hold 
I on to the inside of the 
shell, to which it clings 
so tightly that it will 
sometimes allow itself 
to be torn in pieces 
rather than quit its 
hold. 

13. As the hermit grows it needs to hunt up a larger 
home, and it may be seen creeping along the shore, exam- 
ining and turning over shells to select one, often trying on 
several before it is suited — much as a boy might try on 
several pairs of boots before he is fitted exactly. Should 
a hermit fancy the shell of some living snail, it would not 
hesitate to kill and eat the owner, and then coolly take 
possession of the shell. Two hermits are sometimes found 
fi^htin^ for the same shell. 

14. Fiddler-crabs. — Fiddler-crabs (Fig. 54) have one claw 
much larger than the other, and as they walk sideways 
they hold up the large claw in a threatening manner. 
They dig holes in the mud to live in, and they enter these 
homes with extreme caution. Running quickly to the en- 
trance, they pause a while, turn their stalked eyes in every 
direction, and then slip suddenly in. They are not easily 
caught, for they dart into their holes quickly when alarmed. 

15. Effect of Use upon an Organ. — The fiddler-crab is a 
good illustration of the effect of use upon any one organ. 



CRABS. 



93 



The large claw so peculiar to this group belongs only to 
the males, who are great fighters. They use the large claw 
in their combats, which fact accounts for its increased size. 
The more peaceable females have no need of so powerful a 
weapon, consequently they do not possess this striking pe- 
culiarity of their mates, and, on the contrary, have small 
weak claws. 




Fi£. 54. — Fiddler-crab. 



16. Pea-crabs. — Many of you have seen the little round 
crabs that live in oyster-shells. These pea-crabs, or oys- 
ter-crabs, as they are called, are considered a delicacy, and 
are sometimes collected and sold by the dozen. Having 
no hard covering, they always take up their abode within 
the shell of the oyster or some other bivalve. They are 
not prisoners within the shell, as they venture out into the 
water sometimes, and return again when they wish. 

17. They are said not to annoy the oyster in the least, or 
to deprive it of its food, since they eat certain small animals 
which float into the shell, but which the oyster never feeds 



94 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



upon. Strange to say, it is only the female that shuts her- 
self up within the narrow limits of an oyster-shell. The 
male is much smaller, and frolics about 
on the surface of the sea. 

18. Horse-shoe Crab. — Going from 
one extreme to the other, let us now 
notice the horse-shoe-crab, or king- 
crab, as it is also called, because it is 
the largest of all our crabs. This sin- 
gular dark-brown crab, with a long, 
stiff tail, is very different, as you will 
see, from ordinary crabs. It partly 
buries itself in the sand to hunt for 
its food, and the cast-off shells of all 
sizes, from cute little ones that have 
been shed by tiny infants to those of 
the full-grown king-crab, are often 
found on sandy beaches. An egg of 
the king-crab, one-third larger than life, is shown in the 
illustration (Fig. 55). Several days before the egg hatches 
the young crab may be seen sporting about within the 
transparent shell of the egg. 




Fie:. 55. — King-crab 



LOBSTEKS. 95 



XV. 
LOBSTERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, AltTHROPODA : CLASS, CRUSTACEA. 

1. Lobsters and Crabs Compared. — Lobsters, as well as 
crabs, have the head and thorax united, forming a ceph- 
alo- thorax. The compound eyes are on long, movable 
stalks. Behind these are two pairs of jointed antennas or 
feelers. But near the mouth are five pairs of "jaw-feet," 
which we do not find in crabs ; these, and some other ad- 
ditional organs, point to a difference in their manner of 
living which we shall now consider. 

2. As lobsters live entirely under water, they breathe 
only by gills, which are richly supplied with blood. The 
gills are situated in a cavity under the body, and each 
plate of the gills is attached to one of the legs. A current 
of sea-water is kept passing over the gills, partly by the 
movement of the legs, and partly by a spoon -shaped ap- 
pendage to the second pair of jaw-feet, which constantly 
bales out the water from the gill cavity. 

3. The Claws. — A pair of true walking legs is attached 
to each of the last five segments of the cephalo-thorax. 
The front pair of legs forms the claws ; these are very 
large, and are armed with strong pincers. One claw has 
sharp teeth for tearing food ; the other has rounded teeth, 
and is used as an anchor to hold on to fixed objects. 
Lobsters are so quarrelsome that fishermen, before sending 
them to market, often fasten their claws open with plugs 



96 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

to prevent their fighting and injuring each other. Like 
some other animals we have studied, lobsters can throw 
off their own legs and claws when wounded or alarmed. 
New ones grow in their places, but we often see lobsters 
with limbs that do not match each other in size. 

4. The Swimmerets. — Lobsters are great swimmers, and 
they are w T ell suited to this favorite sport. The large 
abdomen consists of six segments, each bearing a pair of 
paddles called "swimmorets," while the body ends in a 
broad fin or "telson." Each appendage is attached to a 
segment of its own, and it is thought by some naturalists 
that the jaw-feet, antennae, and eye-stalks are all modified 
limbs attached to their appropriate segments. 

5. How Animals are Fitted to the Life they Lead. — It is 
interesting to notice how well every animal is fitted to the 
life it leads. The lobster by striking its powerful tail 
upon the water takes a long spring, and in this way the 
abdomen is a great assistance in swimming. The claws 
are also constantly used to catch the prey and to defend 
the animal, hence both the claws and the tail are large and 
muscular. These two organs we know contain the chief 
eatable part of the lobster. The crab, on the other hand, 
living upon the sandy bottom of the ocean, and among the 
rocks on the shore, is accustomed to walking or running, 
and as the abdomen is not needed for swimming pur- 
poses, it seems to have dwindled away to a mere apology 
for a tail, which is snugly tucked up beneath the cephalo- 
thorax. This same thing happens everywhere in nature. 
An organ that is no longer needed or used, shrivels in 
size and sometimes wholly disappears. 

6. Internal Organs. — We must next know something of 
the internal organs of the lobster. A short oesophagus or 
gullet leads from the mouth to the stomach. The stomach 



LOBSTERS. 



97 



is very large, and contains curious pieces of cartilage to 
which strong grinding teeth are attached for crushing 
the food. These teeth are often called the "lady in the 
lobster." The large liver is of a dark-green color, and 
the heart consists of a single contractile sac, just back of 
the head. 




Fig. 56. — Lobster (IIomarus Vulgaris). 



V. The Lobster outgrows its Shell. — The legs, antenna?, 
and even the eye-stalks of lobsters are incased in a hard 
shell, which, like the crab's shell, never increases in size ; 
consequently, as the animal grows larger, its shell becomes 
too small. At such times the lobster loses its appetite, and 
hiding in some secluded corner, grows weak and thin. In 
this way the body shrinks from the shell. The shell then 
splits open, and after a good deal of screwing and twist- 
ing, the soft, tender body creeps from its outgrown case, 
drawing out with it legs, claws, eye-stalks, and all. 

8. Forms a New Shell. — How weak and defenceless the 
5 



98 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

poor creature must feel with no coat of mail! It seems 
aware of the danger of being eaten by its hungry neigh- 
bors, so it remains out of sight. The lobster now fills its 
body with water and swells out as much as possible, and 
the soft skin, which is covered with a sort of glue, hardens 
to form a new shell, fitting tightly over every part just as 
the skin did. 

9. Color. — The natural color of lobsters is a greenish- 
black, but it changes to a bright red in boiling. The 
females are sometimes found with large masses of eggs 
fastened to the swimmerets. The young ones are hatched 
with the same form as their parents, and they do not pass 
through the changes we noticed in young crabs. 

10. Manner of catching Lobsters. — Lobsters choose the 
deep, clear water along rocky coasts for their dwelling- 
place, and on account of the delicacy of their flavor, they 
are caught in large numbers for food. A common way 
of catching them is by the use of " lobster pots." These 
are wooden cages with a funnel-shaped hole in the top, 
through which the lobsters can easily enter, but cannot 
so easily get out again. The pots are sunk in the water 
and marked by buoys. Great quantities of lobsters are 
caught on the coasts of the British Isles, and are often 
kept in perforated chests floating on the water until they 
are sent to market. 



BARNACLES. 



99 



XVI. 

BARNACLES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, AKTHROPODA : CLASS, CRUSTACEA. 

1. Barnacles form a Coating on Rocks. — Boys and girls 
who have been to rocky sea-coasts may have noticed a 
dull white coating upon the rocks after the tide has gone 
down. If they have given the subject much thought, they 
have probably discovered that on the cliffs this coating 
forms a strip reaching only to high-water mark. 

2. At first we may think the rocks quite disfigured, but 
so great is the charm which living beings have for us that 
we shall become 

interested at once 
upon learning that 
this rusty covering 
consists of acorn- 
barnacles. 

3. Shells closed 
at Low Tide. — Any 
rocks that stand be- 
tween high and low 
water mark may be 

chosen as the resting-place of these curious creatures. 
When the rock is left high and dry above the water there 
is nothing attractive about the barnacles. Their shells are 
tightly closed (as seen in Fig. 57), and they appear per- 




Fig. 57. — Acorn-barnacles. 



100 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



fectly lifeless ; but watch them when the tide comes in, 
and they will show signs of returning activity. 

4. Manner of Feeding. — With the first welcome wave 
that reaches their resting-place you will see the valves 
within the acorn open, and a delicate feathery cluster of 
arms will be thrown out of each 
barnacle, as in Fig. 58, and then sud- 
denly disappear. This movement is 
repeated every few seconds with 
great regularity, and makes a cur- 
rent in the water, carrying towards 
the mouth small floating bodies on 
which the barnacle feeds. 

5. The shell consists of two parts, 
one within another. The outer one 
is composed of several plates, open 
at the top; within it is a conical 
movable lid, the plates of which are 
opened and closed every time the 
arms are thrown out. In this way 
barnacles fish vigorously, as if they 
understood that two tides mean but 
two meals during the day, and consequently they must 
make the best use of them. 

6. This fishing is a graceful operation, and if you should 
find a large rock covered with barnacles, and bathed with 
clear sea-water, you will soon be fascinated with watching 
their motions. As the valves at the top of each cone open, 
twelve pairs of light, feathery arms are thrown out and 
drawn in again with unvarying precision. 

7. Young Barnacles more highly developed than Full- 
grown Ones. — Young barnacles, when first hatched, are 
active, restless creatures, swimming about like young 




Fig. 58. — Acorn- barna 
cle, with Arms ex 

TENDED. 



BARNACLES. 



101 




Fig. 59. — Body op 

GOOSE-JBAUNACLE. 



crabs, but as they grow older they attach themselves to 
rocks, shells, drift-wood, sea-weed, sponges, turtles, or even 
to jelly-fishes. The head is firmly glued to these objects 
by a cement which the animal secretes. The rest of the 
body is free, and can be extended be- 
yond the shell. Fig. 59 shows the body 
of a barnacle as it looks within the shell. 

8. While young, and frolicking about 
in the water, barnacles have two well- 
developed eyes, but these dwindle away 
when the animal settles for life, and they 
finally disappear altogether. The shelly 
covering now grows, and henceforth bar- 
nacles are quiet, orderly individuals, nev- 
er moving from the spot which they have 
chosen as a resting-place unless this hap- 
pens to be upon a living animal or some 

floating object. So you see barnacles are really more 
highly developed in youth than they are later in life. Be- 
fore growing into perfect barnacles they have, parted with 
their sight, and with the power of moving or swimming 
from one place to another. 

9. Clinging to Vessels. — Barnacles are found in all seas. 
They sometimes settle so thickly on the huge Greenland 
whale as to hide the color of its skin. They are also 
found clinging to the hulls of vessels in such large masses 
that the movement of the vessels through the water is re- 
tarded. These barnacles grow rapidly, and ships which 
start upon their voyages freshly painted have sometimes 
been obliged to put into port in order to have the bar- 
nacles scraped from the hull. 

10. Goose-barnacles. — The goose-barnacle (Fig. 60) dif- 
fers from the acorn-barnacle in hanging from a long mus- 



102 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

cular stalk. The shell opens at the side, but the arrange- 
ment of the animal is the same as in the acorn-barnacle. 
It also has twelve pairs of jointed and ciliated limbs, 
which it throws out at regular intervals. 

11. In former times these same goose -barnacles were 
thought to change 
into birds. There 
is a certain goose 
frequenting the 
western coasts of 
the British Isles, 
called the barnacle- 
goose, which was thought, even 
by learned men, to have sprung 
from the barnacle. The follow- 
ing quaint description of the 
transformation was written in 
the sixteenth century : " When the shel 
gapeth open " we see " the legs of the bird 
hanging out," then the bird, increasing in 
size, " hangeth only by the bill," and "in Fig 60< _ GoosE . 
short space after it cometh to full matu- barnacles. 
rity and falleth into the sea, where it 
gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a 
mallard, and lesser than a goose." People believed that 
this change was actually going on before them, and there 
was some difficulty in proving it to be only a fable. 




SPIDERS. 



103 



XVII. 
SPIDERS. 



SUB-KINGDOM, ARTHROPOD A : CLASS, ARACHNIDA. 

1. Spiders. — Although spiders are shunned and despised, 
they are mostly harmless creatures, quietly pursuing their 
work of destroying insects. They have a singular fancy 
for resting with their heads downward, and instead of liv- 
ing in pairs, they prefer to live alone. The females are 
usually larger than the males, and they show no good 
feeling towards their mates, eating them if they have an 
opportunity. In some cases, however, they live peacea- 
bly together for a time. 

2. Examination of a Spider. — The two divisions of the 
spider's body are easily seen. The cephalo-thorax has a 
horny covering, but the abdomen is soft. It is entirely 
without limbs, and is 
united to the cephalo- 
thorax by a short stalk. 
Spiders have four pairs 
of 1 egs, ending in hooks, 
which may be seen in 
Fig. 61. Near the 
mouth are hooked man- 
dibles, which contain a slit for throwing out a poisonous 
fluid to kill their prey. They have from six to eight 
eyes, which are grouped together on the top of the head. 




Fiu;. 61. — Foot of Spider, magnified. 



104 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 62. — Geometric Web op Garden- 
spider. 



The more highly developed spi- 
ders have a heart and blood- 
vessels. They breathe by air-sacs and 
tubes, which open on the under surface 
of the abdomen. The nervous ganglia of 
the head and thorax are united into a mass 
slightly resembling a brain. 
3. Spinning Silk.— Spiders are provided with 




SPIDERS. 105 

a curious set of machinery for spinning their webs. At the 
end of the abdomen are three pairs of "spinnerets," the 
last pair often extending behind the body like two prongs 
(Fig. 63). On examining these spinnerets 
we shall find them covered with tiny points ; 
from each of these flows a stream of gum- 
my fluid, which hardens into silk when it 
reaches the air. The movable spinnerets 
are under the control of the spider, and 
when they are held close together the fine Fl S- 63 - — gplN - 

... . . NERETS OF SPI- 

streams issuing from them unite into one DER . 
thread before hardening, but if the spinner- 
ets are held apart the threads harden separately. By 
pressing the spinnerets against any object the fluid silk is 
forced out of the tubes and adheres to its surface, conse- 
quently it is drawn out when the spinnerets are lifted. 
The hind-legs are also used in helping to draw the delicate 
stream of silk, and guiding it to form various designs. 

4. In this way a spider's web which we can barely see 
may be composed of more than a thousand threads. Like 
a piece of ordinary rope, it is stronger for being made 
up of small cords, but notwithstanding this the silk is too 
delicate to be of service to man, and all attempts to weave 
it into cloth have failed. 

5. Uses of the Web. — Some spiders use their webs as traps 
to catch their prey, and those that live in holes or under- 
neath stones generally line their hiding-places with web. 
Nearly all spiders enclose their eggs in a silken cocoon, 
which, in some species, the mother carries on her back. 
The young spiders remain in the web until they have grown 
to a considerable size, when the mother sometimes tears 
open the web, and the baby spiders may be seen swarm- 
ing over her, as in Fig. 64. When the time arrives to 

5* 



106 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

wean them from her back the mother shakes or kicks 
them off with her feet, and they scamper away to begin 
life by themselves. Two thousand young spiders have 
been found in one cocoon. 




Fi<;. 64. — Female Spider with Young Ones. 



6. Feeding the Little Ones. — When feeding her babies, 
the mother holds a nice plump fly, or some such dainty 
morsel, while the little ones gather round and suck its 
juices. When their hunger is satisfied they run off, and 
a new set comes to the feast. The mother often kills some 
of her own little ones to feed the remaining spiders of her 
numerous brood. 

7. Cobwebs. — What could be more charming than the 
filmy cobwebs that ornament the country road-sides, the 
fences, and the bushes in the early mornings of summer, 
every thread bearing a precious load of dew-drops ? Al- 
though the webs remain through the day, they please us 
most when sparkling with dew. Those flat w r ebs that are 
so familiar to us all slope down into a cunning little tube 
w 7 hich leads off among the grass. If you look closely you 
will find the spider hiding just inside this tube, and watch- 



SPIDERS. 107 

ing intently for some insect to alight on its snare. When 
this happy event occurs, the spider runs out, and seizing 
its prey, carries it into the tube, where it sucks the juices 
of its victim and casts away the dead body. 

8. Garden-spider. — Our common black and yellow gar- 
den-spider weaves a wheel-shaped web like that which is 
shown in the picture on page 104. This web is really a 
work of art. First, the framework for the wheel is made 
by a number of threads crossing each other at one point, 
and firmly attached at both ends to surrounding objects. 
These threads are like the spokes of a wheel, and upon 
them the spider fastens a spiral thread, making circle 
after circle. 

9. The spider then stations itself, head downward, at the 
centre of the web, from which point it can feel the slightest 
motion made by an insect alighting upon it, and can quick- 
ly reach the spot, to secure its victim by additional threads. 
This garden - spider places her eggs in a pear-shaped co- 
coon, which you will see represented in the picture. 

10. Gossamer-spiders. — Some small spiders have a fan- 
tastic habit of weaving balloons for themselves and sail- 
ing through the air. They pass by the general name of 
" gossamer-spiders." Placing themselves in some high po- 
sition, such as the tops of fences, with their heads towards 
the wind, and their spinnerets open, they allow a stream 
of fluid silk to be blown out by the current. The spider 
then makes a spring, and, grasping the thread with its 
feet, is carried by the wind for long distances, completely 
surrounded by a mass of its own web. These little fairy 
balloons may be seen floating through the air almost any 
fine day in the autumn. 

11. Water-spider. — : Besides those that mount into the 
air, there are some spiders that live in the water. The 



108 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

mrnsm 








curious water-spi- 
der makes a bell-shaped 
cocoon of silk under the 
water, and fastens it to the 
leaves and twigs of growing 
plants. As the spider is an 
air-breathing animal, its young 
ones must have a supply of 
air, and the patient mother dis- 
plays the greatest ingenuity in 
obtaining it. She floats upon the 
surface of the water until in some 
way a bubble of air forms upon 
her abdomen; this she holds either 
by her hind-legs or by the long hairs 
on her body, and sinking rapidly un- 
derneath her cocoon, lets go of the 
bubble, which of course rises into the 
little bell. In this way bubble after 
bubble is stored away until the bell 
is filled with air. 
12. Tarantula. — The tarantula, or trap-door spider, lives 
in warm countries, and digs for its nest a hole in the 
ground two inches or more in depth. The hole is neatly 



Fig. 65 



— Nest of Ta- 
rantula. 



SPIDERS. 109 

lined with real raw silk, and tightly covered with a most 
ingenious lid. How do you suppose the spider manages 
to make this circular lid of the exact size, and then fasten 
it on with a silken hinge? The top of the nest is first 
covered with a web of the proper shape, on which is 
placed a small quantity of earth; over this is spread an- 
other web, then more clay, so that the lid is composed of 
layer after layer of web and fine clay, which harden into 
a thin, stiff mass. The webs on one side are attached to 
the edge of the nest to form the hinge. 

13. If the lid is closed it looks so exactly like the sur- 
rounding soil that these nests are not easily found. The 
concealment is completed by a cunning habit of cover- 
ing the door with moss, or some substance similar to that 
which grows around it. When in its nest the spider holds 
on to the door so tightly by its mandibles and fore-feet 
that the lid cannot be raised from the outside. 



110 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XVIII. 
INSECTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ARTHROPOD A : CLASS, INSECTA. 

1. Largest Class in the Animal Kingdom. — Insects them- 
selves are mostly small, but the class to which they belong 

is the largest class 
in the animal king- 
dom, and contains 
more than two 
hundred thousand 
species. 

2. Found in ev- 
ery Part of the 
World.— These lit- 
tle creatures are 
found in all the 
countries and oce- 
anic islands that 
man has reached; 
they inhabit hot 
springs as well 
as the coldest 
streams. Hum- 
boldt found them 
on the Andes far 
above the line of perpetual snow, and Darwin, on the early 
voyage of the Beagle, found a dragon-fly two hundred and 
fifty miles from land. 




— Diagram op an Insect. 

B, C, D, segments of the thorax ; E, ab- 
domen ; F, ovipositor. 




INSECTS. Ill 

3. Body made up of Segments with no Skeleton. — Insects 
have no internal skeleton, but they are covered with a 
horny skin. The head, thorax, and abdomen are entirely 
distinct, and each part is mostly divided into segments 
such as are represented in the diagram (Fig. 66). 

4. Compound Eyes. — Conspicuous upon the sides of the 
head are the large round eyes, which, examined through 
a microscope, will be found covered with numerous flat 
surfaces or lenses (Fig. 67). These 
are called compound eyes, for they 
consist of a great number of eyes 
crowded into one mass ; and they have 
the power of looking in many direc- 
tions at the same time. In addition 
to their compound eyes, most insects 
have three simple eyes placed between 
them. The antenna?, or feelers, are % F ' ^ OWING gq M _ 

also interesting, and vou will find pound Eyes, Simple 

., . , Eyes, and Antennae. 

great variety in their shapes. 

5. Limbs of Insects. — To the thorax are attached three 
pairs of legs, and mostly two pairs of wings. These wings 
are thin and delicate, and are very large in proportion to 
the body. They are supported by a net-work of hollow 
tubes which enclose air-pipes and blood-vessels side by 
side. 

6. The abdomen has no limbs, and it often ends in a 
piercer or sting, which is called the " ovipositor." You 
may have noticed in larger insects a curious sliding in and 
out of the segments of the abdomen. This bellows-like 
action helps to change the air in the air-tubes. 

V. Organs of Digestion and Circulation. — The (Esophagus 
leads into a crop from which the food enters the gizzard, 
where it is crushed and passed on to the true stomach 



112 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




(Fig. 68). Insects have no distinct 
heart, and the blood is propelled by 
the contraction of eight sacs, which al- 
low it to flow only towards the head. 
The blood is colorless, and fills the 
irregular spaces left between the or- 
gans. 

8. Breathing Apparatus. — Insects 
breathe by tracheae, which are air- 
tubes passing through every part of 
the body. Being filled with air, the 
tracheae supply the blood abundantly 
with oxygen, and at the same time di- 
minish the weight of the body. These 
tubes are composed of elastic threads 
wound in a close spiral (Fig. 69), 
giving them great strength and light- 
ness, and preventing the possibility of 

their being pressed together and closed. The tracheae 

open on the surface of the body in small holes, called 

" stigmata," which are arranged on the sides of the thorax 

and abdomen, and are so contrived as to 

admit air freely, while they exclude water 

or dust. A drop of oil on the abdomen 

of an insect will kill it by closing the 

stigmata and causing suffocation. 

9. Insects have no Voices. — No insect is 
known to have a voice. The various noises 
of insects, so commonly heard, are caused 
by the rapid vibration of their wings, or 
by rubbing together some hard parts of 
their bodies. 

10. Metamorphosis.— Most young insects 



Fig. 68. — Alimentary 
Canal of a Beetle. 

b, oesophagus ; c, crop ; 
d, gizzard; e, stom- 
ach ; g, iu(;estiue. 




Fig. 69. — Tra- 
cheae of an In- 
sect, showing 
Elastic Spiral 
Thread. 



INSECTS. 113 

are very different from their parents, and before reaching 
their perfect state they pass through a succession of 
changes called "metamorphosis." As butterflies are fa- 
miliar insects, let us take them for an example, and study 
the changes through which they pass. 




Butterfly in the Larva, Pupa, and Imago State. 



11. The Larva of a Butterfly. — From the eggs of but- 
terflies are hatched young caterpillars. The caterpillar 
crawls over the plant upon which it was born, eagerly de- 
vouring the green leaves, as its mouth is fitted for chew- 
ing. It grows rapidly, and sheds its coat several times. 
During this period of its existence it is called a " larva." 

12. The Pupa or Chrysalis State. — At length the larva 
leaves off eating, and enters the "pupa" or "chrysalis" 
state. Wrapped in a dry skin, and hanging head down- 
ward suspended by a silken thread, it remains for a time 
apparently dead. Shut up, however, in the silence of this 



114 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



temporary prison, a marvellous change is going on, and 
when the skin bursts a full-grown butterfly appears, fur- 
nished with wings and arrayed in bright colors. These 
three stages are represented in Fig. 10. The attractive 
insect now in no way reminds us of the caterpillar from 
which it sprang. 

13. The Imago or Perfect Butterfly. — When the but- 
terfly first leaves the case its wings are crumpled and 
moist, and before attempting to fly it rests a while, until 

the wings stretch 
out to their full size. 
The delicate hues 
of the butterflies are 
due to the small 
feather - like scales 
with which they are 
covered. The scales 
overlap each other, 
as shown in Fig. 71. 
14. Great changes 
have also taken place 
Fig. vi.—Scales on the Wing of a Moth, in the mouth, and 

henceforth a butter- 
fly sucks the sweet juices of flowers through a slender 
tube, which, when not in use, may be rolled up spirally 
under the head. Our beautiful insect has now reached 
the " imago " or perfect state, and the great aim of this 
part of its existence is to choose a mate. In this it makes 
no mistakes. The image of its own kind seems to be im- 
pressed upon its fancy, so that it never mates with any 
but its own species. Insects know each other when they 
meet, just as they know the right flowers to feed upon, 
and in the same way the female butterfly selects the 




INSECTS. 



115 



proper spot for her 
eggs, generally plac- 
ing them on some 
plant whose leaves 
are suitable food for |jj 
her caterpillar chil- 
dren. 







15. Nearly all insects pass 
p: v through these three condi- 

IpF I \ tions, the larva, the pupa, 

and the imago, as we have 
before stated. Their larvae are known by the various 
names of caterpillars, grubs, and maggots. By keeping 



116 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

a few caterpillars you may watch for yourselves all these 
interesting changes. 

16. What could possibly seem more aimless than the 
joyous, careless flitting of a butterfly! Floating hither and 
thither through the bright sunshine, and folding together 
its elegant wings above the choicest flowers, its life ap- 
pears a most luxurious one; still it has its own part to 
play. 

IV. Flowers fertilized by Insects.— It is a well-known 
fact that most bright-colored flowers are dependent upon 
the visits of insects (especially of bees) to perfect their 
seeds, and thus to keep up a succession of new plants 
from one year to another. The insects are attracted by 
the showy petals, and they enter the flowers to obtain the 
honey wdiich is stored up in the bottom of the tube. In 
so doing, grains of pollen adhere to their heads and wings, 
and are carried from one flower to another. These pollen 
grains lodge upon the moist surface of the pistils as the 
insects brush past them, and in due time seeds are pro- 
duced. 

18. Bright-colored Insects attracted by bright Flowers. — 
Butterflies are great rovers. Having no homes of their 
own, they flit gayly about and visit the most brilliant 
blossoms. Throughout nature we find highly colored 
birds and insects have the same preference for bright 
flowers and fruits as is shown by the butterflies. 

1 9. Butterflies and Moths contrasted. — Many of our moths 
resemble butterflies ; and as both of these insects change 
from caterpillars, it will be well to notice some of the 
differences between them. In the first place, true butter- 
flies fly only in the daytime. Their antennae are long and 
thread - like, with knobs at the end. When at rest, the 
wings are generally folded together and held erect above 



INSECTS. 



117 



the body, thus concealing the more brightly colored upper 
surfaces, and affording the insect protection against its 
enemies. The under side of the wings often resembles 
in color the flower upon which the butterfly feeds. 




Fio;. *73. — Moth and Larwe. 



20. Moths fly only at night or during twilight. The 
body is generally stouter and more robust than that of the 
butterfly. Their antenna? are tapering, and sometimes 
beautifully feathered (Fig. 73). They do not fold their 
wings in repose, and their larvae enclose themselves in 
silken cocoons. 

21. Silk-worms. — Silk-worms, the most useful of these 



118 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

insects, are extensively cultivated for the silk of their co- 
coons. When the pupae are ready to leave the cocoon 
they make a hole through it for their escape, which 
breaks the thread of silk. To prevent this it is custom- 
ary, when silk -worms are raised for profit, to kill the 
pupae by submitting their cocoons to a great heat. The 
cocoons are afterwards soaked in warm water to soften a 
gummy substance which they contain, and the silk can 
then be wound off in an unbroken thread. The length of a 
thread of silk has been estimated to be nine hundred feet. 
22. In commencing its cocoon the larva attaches the silk 
to some fixed object, then winds itself in its own web, 
thickening the cocoon upon the inside. The moths of the 
silk-worm have grown so helpless from confinement that 
the female is nearly as motionless as if she had no wings, 
and the male merely flutters around his companion with- 
out leaving the ground. It has been found that after 
three generations raised in the open air they recover their 
lost power of flight. 



BEES. 



119 



XIX. 
BEES. 

SUB-KDsGDOM, ARTHROPODA : CLASS, ENSECTA. 

1. Transparent Wings Hooked. — You may have noticed 
how thin and transparent the wings of bees are, and that 
they are supported by delicate veins. Look at them now 
with your microscopes, and you will see small hooks on the 
edge (Fig. 74), which fasten 
together the front and back 
wing during flight, in or- 
der that thev may move as 




Fisr. 74. 



-Wings of a Bee, showing 
the Hooks. 



one wing. 

2. The Sting.— The sting 
of the female (Fig. 75) is a 
remarkable instrument at 
the end of the abdomen. 
It consists of two darts, a, 

and a sheath, b, connected with a poison -gland, e. The 
wound is first made with the sheath, after which the darts 
are thrust out to deepen it. These darts have a number of 
pointed barbs at the end, d, and it is difficult to remove 
them from the wound, so they sometimes break off. This 
loss of the sting causes the bee to die, though not always 
immediately. The sting, or ovipositor, varies in form with 
different kinds of bees, and it is sometimes used for cut- 
ting, boring, and sawing holes in which to deposit the eggs. 
Male bees have no sting, and are therefore harmless. 



120 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 75.— A Bef/s Sting. 
d, dart magnified. 

tinued several 
inches down the 
trunk, parallel to 
the grain of the 
wood. This tun- 
nel is afterwards 
divided into cells, 
in each of which is 
placed an egg with 
a supply of food 
for the young lar- 
va. The parti- 
tions between the 
cells are made of 
the sawdust which 
has collected from 
her boring, moist- 
ened with a gum- 
my fluid which the 
bee secretes. She 



3. Social Bees and Solitary Bees. — 
Humble - bees and hive - bees live in 
large families, and are called social 
bees. There are also solitary bees 
which live entirely alone. 

4. The Carpenter-bee. — The carpen- 
ter-bee is an interesting example of 
a solitary bee. She bores her nest in 
old wood, mostly selecting the dead 
limb of a tree, an old post, or wooden 
railing. One of these nests is shown 
in Fig. 76. The bee bores a tube which 
soon makes a sudden turn, and is con- 




Fig. 76. — Nest of Carpenter-bee. 



BEES. 



121 



seems to know that the egg first deposited at the bottom 
of the tube will hatch first, so she bores a second opening 
at that part of the tunnel, through which the young bees 
come forth in succession at the proper time. 

5. Humble-bees. — Humble-bees, as we have said, are 
among the social bees. They make their nests in holes 
in the ground (Fig. 
77), often taking pos- 
session of a deserted 
mouse nest. All the 
colony, except the fe- 
males, die when win- 
ter comes. These fe- 
males remain in a tor- 
pid state, concealed 
among moss or rotten 
wood, to start new 
colonies the following 
spring. 

6. Hive -bees. — The 
habits of hive-bees are 
exceedingly curious, 
and deserve our espe- 
cial study. Every hive 
contains a queen-bee, 
workers, and drones 
(Fig. 78). 

7. The Workers Build 
the Nests. — The whole 
labor of building the nest and providing for the large fam- 
ily falls upon the workers. They have a softer material 
to work in than the carpenter-bee, since their nest is built 
of wax, which is a secretion of their bodies, and which 

(5 




Nest of Hcmble-bee. 



122 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

forms in scales between the segments of the abdomen. 
With their feet the bees remove the wax, and work it with 




Fig. 78. — Hive-bees, 
i, queen ; b, worker j c, drone. 



their mouths and mandibles, mixing it with saliva until it 
becomes soft and white. 

8. It is then placed upon the ceiling of the hive, and 
the cells are carefully shaped and fitted to each other, 
forming the honey-comb which is our wonder and admira- 
tion. The manner in which the six-sided cells fit together 
gives the greatest possible amount of space, while it re- 
quires the least material for building. 

9. Gathering Honey. — In collecting honey for the hive 
a bee goes steadily from one blossom to another, visiting 
flowers of only one kind on each excursion; thus it does 
not mix the honey from different flowers. The long 
tongue, or proboscis, enters the tube of the flower and 
laps up the honey. The tube of some flowers is too long 
and narrow for the bee to enter, so the honey is sucked 



BEES. 



123 




from the cup on the 
outside of the flower, or 
the tube is pierced by 
proboscis. 

10. Most of this honey re- 
mains in the crop, or honey-sac, 
until the bee returns to the hive. 
By the contraction of certain 
muscles the honey is forced back 
again through the mouth, and is 
poured into the cell. As the 
cells become full, they are sealed 
up tightly with wax. The hon- 
ey has undergone some change 
while within the body of the 
bee, for it is quite different from 
the pure juice taken from the 
flowers. 

11. Pollen Baskets.— When 
bees leave the flowers the hair 
on their bodies and legs is cov- 
ered with pollen, which they 



Fig. 79 



-Little Plunderers. 



124 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

brush back into little pockets on their hind-legs and carry- 
to the hive. It is a singular fact that the queen and the 
drones have no such pollen baskets. As they never go 
out to gather honey, they need none. 

12. The Queen-bee. — Each hive has one queen, and she 
is the only perfectly developed female. She lays all the 
eggs, which sometimes amount to two thousand in a sin- 
gle day. Different sized cells have been prepared for the 
three classes of bees, and the queen deposits each egg in 
its proper cell, gluing it slightly to the bottom. She first 
lays eggs which are to produce the workers, afterwards 
those which produce drones, the last being placed in 
larger cells. 

13. Duties of the Nurses. — In three or four days the 
eggs hatch into little white grubs, and then the duties of 
the nurses, or workers, begin. The nurses feed the larvae 
with a mixture of pollen and honey, which they have first 
swallowed, and which is already partly digested. The 
larva? require a great quantity of food, and grow rapidly 
until they almost fill the cell. When they refuse to eat 
any longer, the nurses seal over the cells until the young 
bees are perfectly developed. 

14. The Perfect Bee. — Fastened within its cell, the larva 
spins for itself a silken cocoon, and remains inactive, eat- 
ing no food while the wonderful change is taking place. 
The care of the nurses has ceased, and when the perfect 
bee is ready to leave the cell it struggles out alone, and 
enters the busy throng outside with no one to welcome it. 
The workers soon take possession of the empty cell, and 
prepare it for future occupants. 

15. Treatment of a Young Queen. — On the other hand, 
the young queen in her cell is treated with the greatest 
distinction. The larva is given richer food and in larger 



BEES. 125 

quantities than the workers or drones receive. When she 
is ready to leave the cell, the workers gather around and 
gnaw at the top of the cell until it is so thin that the 
movements of the young queen within may be watched. 
A hole is made in this cover large enough for her to 
extend her proboscis, and she is fed in this position for 
several days, uttering the while a peculiar cry called 
piping. 

16. The queen seems to have a hatred for those of her 
own sex, and she will destroy the young queens that come 
within her reach. Consequently, if the bees have not yet 
swarmed, the workers do not allow a young queen to stir 
from her cell. After the old queen has left the hive with 
her swarm, the young queens are liberated at intervals of 
a few days, and they lose no opportunity to kill each other. 

1 7. The Larva of a Worker may develop into a Queen. — 
If by any accident the hive is left without a queen, the 
bees are thrown into great excitement, but they soon wak- 
en up to the necessity for action, and they begin, as it 
were, to cultivate a queen. They select three adjoining 
worker cells which contain larvae, and cutting away the 
partition walls, convert them into one large cell. Two 
of the larvae are destroyed, and the remaining one, by 
being fed on royal food, and having plenty of room and 
other favorable conditions, grows into a queen instead of 
a worker. This slight change of treatment not only gives 
her a different form and color, but it alters her whole nat- 
ure, and gives her different instincts. 

18. So you will see that queen-bees and workers come 
from the same kind of larvae, and that these larvae de- 
velop, according to the circumstances under which they 
are placed, either into queens or into workers. 

19. Drones killed by the Workers. — The drones are 



126 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

males, and they take no part in the work of the hive. In 
the latter part of summer the workers kill them without 
mercy, as if they were determined to support them no 
longer. They attack the drones, and sting them between 
the rings of the abdomen, afterwards throwing them out 
of the hive. 

20. Swarming. — Bees usually swarm, or fly off in search 
of a new home, in the spring, never leaving the hive, how- 
ever, until it is well stocked with eggs and the weather 
is warm. When about to swarm, the queen and the 
workers become very much agitated, hurrying to and fro 
for several days before they start. As the time for de- 
parture arrives, several bees fly in circles around the hive ; 
suddenly the noise and bustle are hushed, and they all 
enter within. At a given signal, those which are to com- 
pose the swarm fly off rapidly, and select some tree or 
bush on which to alight. If their queen is not with them, 
they soon discover the mistake and return to the hive, 
where they wait for several days before a second attempt 
is made. 

21. When the bees have entered their new home, they 
arrange themselves in a loop, or festoon, by hooking their 
claws together, and in this manner they hang from the 
roof of the hive. Thus they continue motionless for some 
time, while a store of wax is forming with which to build 
their new comb. 

22. The bees which remain in the old hive after the 
swarm has left quietly pursue their labors, and a new 
brood soon fills the vacancies. The young queens, in 
their turn, lead off new swarms, and thus proceeds the 
busy life in a beehive. There are sometimes as many as 
fifty thousand bees in one hive, yet the work goes on 
without the slightest disorder or confusion. 



BEES. 127 

23. Ventilating the Hive. — The workers keep the hive 
perfectly clean, and allow no dead bees or other impurities 
to remain within it. They are also careful that it shall 
be well ventilated. To accomplish this a certain number 
of bees continually fan their wings as if flying, although 
their feet are fastened to the floor. Some bees are occa- 
sionally stationed outside the hive to perform the same 
movements, but the greater number are within, one set 
relieving another after a certain time. The rapid motion 
of their wings causes a current of fresh air to pass through 
the hive; it also produces the humming sound which is 
constantly heard from a hive of bees. 



128 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XX. 
WASPS AND MOSQUITOES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ARTHROPODA : CLASS, INSECTA. 

1. Wasps. — Wasps have a general resemblance to bees, 
although they may be distinguished by their wings, 
which, when at rest, are laid over the body ; also by the 
deep stalk-like division between the thorax and abdomen. 

Wasps differ great- 
ly in their habits. 
Like the bees, some 
live alone, others 
live in colonies. 

2. The Mud-wasp. 
— Our common 
mud-wasp is among 
the solitary ones. 
This wasp makes 
its nest of mud, 
fastened to the side 
of a wall or under 
a ceiling. The nest 
consists of long 
cells arranged hor- 
izontally. In each 
cell is deposited one egg and a supply of little spiders 
for the young larva to feed upon after it is hatched. The 




Fig. 80. — Digger-wasp — Cocoon and Larva. 



WASPS AND MOSQUITOES. 



129 




Fig. 81. — Nest of Mud-wasp. 



spiders are not killed, but only stunned, and imprisoned 
alive when the end of the cell is fastened up. 

3. In Fig. 81 you see a cell which has not yet been 
closed. The remaining cells were full of little green spi- 
ders,, still active, when this 

nest was found. 

4. Social Wasps. — Social 
wasps live in large families, 
which contain females, work- 
ers, and males. When win- 
ter approaches, all the wasps 
die except the females; these 
creep into some safe place, 
and sleep through the cold 
weather with their wings 
and legs tightly folded. In 

the spring they revive, and each female starts a new nest 
for herself. 

5. Nests built of Paper. — The nests of social wasps are 
always built of paper. Indeed, wasps were the first paper- 
makers. Long before man had learned the various proc- 
esses required for manufacturing it, wasps had mastered 
the secret. Their paper is beautifully variegated, and be- 
ing made of the fibres of wood, it is so durable as to bear 
exposure to rains and storms. Gnawing these fibres from 
some old fence or tree-trunk, the wasps moisten them with 
saliva until by the action of their jaws a paste is formed 
ready to spread out in a thin sheet. In looking at a 
piece of this paper, the wavy stripes will show just how 
far each bundle of fibre went towards forming the nest. 

6. Starting the Colony. — As we have stated, there is but 
one wasp to do all the work in starting the home, so the 
building goes on slowly at first. By the time three or 

6* 



130 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 









Fig. 82. — Nksts of 
Social Wasps. 



four cells are fin- 
ished the young 
workers which 
occupied them 
are ready to help 
the mother, who has been 
busy building the nest, de- 
positing eggs, and feeding the hungry 
larvae. Other cells are made and more 
eggs deposited, the work going on 
rapidly. The first wasps hatched are 
the workers; the perfect males and 
females do not appear until nearly the end of 
the season. 



WASPS AND MOSQUITOES. 



131 



7. Some kinds of wasps make their nests in holes in the 
ground, others fasten them to walls or to the branches of 
trees. The flat nests in Fig. 82 are built without any 
covering to the cells. 

8. The Hornet's Nest. — A much more elaborate nest is 
made by the hornet. The one represented in Fig. 83 is 




83. — Hornets' Nest. 



cut open at one side to show the interior. It is formed of 
tiers of cells, one above another, with their mouths open- 
ing downward ; the tiers are attached to little stalks 
which hang from the top of the nest. The whole is cov- 



132 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

ered with several envelopes of paper, and the entrance is 
through a circular opening in the bottom. When it be- 
comes necessary to enlarge the nest, new envelopes are 
added on the outside, and the inner covers are removed 
to make room for more cells. These nests are found in 
the woods, attached to the branches of trees. 

9. The Yellow-jacket. — The yellow - jacket is a small 
black wasp marked with bands and spots of yellow. Its 
nest is much like that of a hornet, but smaller and more 
pointed, with the entrance on one side, near the bottom. 
The yellow - jacket sometimes attacks persons without 
provocation, and its sting is very severe. As a general 
thing, wasps do not sting unless they are irritated, but 
they are zealous in guarding their nests, and become agi- 
tated upon any approach to it ; if it is molested in any 
way, they rush upon the intruder without mercy. 

10. The Mosquito. — Now let us glance at the mosquito. 
Its sting is on the head, and consists of several sharp 
lances and sucking tubes enclosed in a flexible sheath. 
After lancing the flesh, mosquitoes let fall a drop of poi^ 
son, which makes the blood so thin that they can readily 
suck it through their tubes. 

1 1 . Young Mosquitoes in the Water. — Mosquitoes lay 
their eggs in water. Their larvae pass by the name of 
" wigglers," and they may be seen in any stagnant pool. 
Here they remain during winter, when the ponds are 
covered with ice, and the mosquitoes of last season have 
been killed off with the cold. So, while we are enjoying 
a rest from the attentions of these little pests, another 
generation is coming on for next season. 

12. The larvae move through the water by sudden jerks. 
Their breathing organs are towards the tail, so they swim 
with the head down, as may be seen at E in Fig. 84, but 



WASPS AND MOSQUITOES. 133 

after they throw off the first skin and enter the pupa 
state, they breathe through the thorax, and keep the head 
at the surface of the water. Once more the skin splits, 
and they fly away full-grown mosquitoes. The dry case 
of the pupa forms a sort of boat, upon which the insect 
may rest and spread its wings before taking flight. 

13. Yon may see this interesting metamorphosis going 
on in any pond in summer-time. A bright sunny morning 
brings thousands of these little boats to the surface, and 
you may be so fortunate as to see the occupant burst its 
shell and fly off into the sunlight. 




Fig. 84. — Different Stages in the Growth of a Mosquito. 

A. boat of eggs ; B, eggs highly magnified ; d, with lid open for the escape of the 
larva: C, D, pnpse; K, larva "magnified, showing respiratory tubes (e), aual tins 
(/), antennae {g); F, imago. 



14. The Eggs. — The eggs of mosquitoes are cemented 
together side by side, and protected by some water-proof 
covering which enables them to float securely upon the 



134 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

water, like miniature life -boats, which they really are. 
Each egg, moreover, contains a tiny air-bubble, and if the 
little life-boat should happen to be plunged beneath the 
surface, it rises quickly, and always with the right side 
up. These rafts of eggs are shown nicely at A, in Fig. 84. 
At B you will see the eggs magnified, with a -curious lid 
at d, for the escape of the larva. 

15. House-flies. — Our common house-flies live with us 
on intimate terms, and take great liberties in our homes; 
still, the early part of their lives is concealed from us, and 
we scarcely think about how they come or where they go. 

16. Most flies perish when cold weather comes, but a 
few of the strong, healthy females creep into some crevice 
or corner, where they lie in a torpid state until the next 
summer. Here the eggs are deposited from which a new 
generation springs. In hot climates, and in rooms which 
are kept constantly warm, flies remain active all the year. 



ANTS. 135 



XXI. 

ANTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, ARTHROPODA : CLASS, INSECTA. 

1. Remarkable Instinct of Ants. — Ants are considered 
the most highly developed of all insects. Indeed, none 
of the lower animals possess such remarkable instincts 
as the ants. They show great wisdom and ingenuity in 
building their nests and in reaching any desired point. 
They make roads for themselves by carefully removing 
any obstacle in their way. They also dig tunnels of con- 
siderable length, sometimes resorting to this method for 
crossing broad rivers. They protect their nests, fight bat- 
tles, gather food, tend their young, take care of domestic 
animals, and possess slaves. Their industry is not ex- 
celled by the bees and wasps. They work all day, and, 
when there is necessity, even at night. 

2. Their one Flight into the Air. — Ants live in families, 
consisting of males, females, and workers. At first the 
young males and females are furnished with wings, and 
they fly from the nest to select their mates. Immediate- 
ly after this first and only flight the males die, and the 
females strip off their wings, and do not leave the nest 
again. 

3. Labor of the Workers. — The workers are much more 
numerous than the other classes; some of them serve as 
soldiers, others, which are generally smaller, serve as 



136 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

nurses. All the labor of the colony falls upon the work- 
ers, and they attend to their various duties in the most 
orderly manner. 

4. Ants' Nests. — Ants do not all build their nests in 
the same way. Some species heap up a mass of small 
sticks and pine leaves; some bore into the trunks of old 




Fig. 85. — Ant Nest, with Underground Passages. 



trees ; but most ants make holes in the ground, with a 
little mound of earth around the entrance, which we call 
an ant-hill. These nests are carefully contrived, with 
passages and avenues leading to many chambers, as you 
will see in Fig. 85. The entrances are closed every night, 
and opened in the morning. If it rains during the day 
they remain closed, and the ants are confined within the 
nest. 



ANTS. 



137 



5. Nurses' Care of the Eggs and Grubs. — The eggs, which 
are scarcely large enough to be visible, are not deposited 
in any especial place by the females, but are immediately 
taken possession of by the nurses, who carry them to some 
favorable place, and who are henceforth devoted in their 
attentions to them, constantly licking and cleaning them, 
and frequently changing their position. 

6. From the eggs are hatched little white grubs, which 
are entirely dependent upon their nurses for food. Every 
morning they are carried into the sunshine, or at least to 
the upper chambers that have been warmed by the sun, 
and towards evening they are again taken back to the 
bottom of the nest, where there is no chilliness. Imagine 
the labor — each one of those thousands of larva car- 
ried separately in the mouth of a faithful nurse ! If a 
shower comes on, or if the young family is threatened 
with danger, they are quickly taken to some safe place. 

7. When ready to enter the pupa state, the larvae cover 
themselves with 
a sort of web 
(Fig. 86), and are 
still carried back 
and forth by the 
nurses, who con- 
tinually clean 
them. Sir John 
Lubbock, in his 
recent work on ants, states that when the pupa are ready 
to leave their cases the nurses help them to escape. " It 
is very pretty," he says, " to see the older ants helping 
them to extricate themselves, carefully unfolding their 
legs and smoothing out the wings with truly feminine 
tenderness and delicacy." 






Larva, Cocoon, and Pcp^e of Red Ant 
(magnified). 



138 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



8. Cleanliness. — Ants not only keep their homes neat, 
but they are careful of their own personal cleanliness. 
Their little feet are covered with hairs, which form good 
brushes, and no particles of dust are allowed to remain 

on their bodies. 
They may often 
be seen rubbing 
their feet togeth- 
er to clean them, 
as flies do. The 
antennae of ants 
(Fig. SI) are bent 
like an elbow, and 
with them the act- 
ive little creatures 
examine every ob- 
ject they meet. 

9. Recognizing 
Members of their 
own Family. — If 
we notice ants in 
their travels, we 
shall see two dis- 
tinct lines, one 
moving towards 
the nest, the other 
leaving it. Those 
that are returning 
without a load stop, and, with their antennae, salute their 
sisters carrying burdens, and this they do so quickly as 
not to break or interrupt the line. 

10. In one nest there may, perhaps, be four hundred 
thousand ants. Notwithstanding these immense numbers, 




ANTS. 139 

a stranger upon entering the nest is immediately attacked, 
which fact shows that the ants in the community have 
some power of recognizing each other. They even know 
members of their own family after a long absence, and 
welcome them back to their old home. 

11. If an ant has discovered a good feeding-ground, it 
seems to spread the news to its fellows, and often returns 
with a troop of them to share the feast. 

12. Favorite Places for their Nests. — You have probably 
noticed the little ants that burrow under the pavements 
in our streets and door-yards, and have wondered why 
they choose situations so exposed that many of them are 
trodden underfoot, while their little hillocks of earth are 
swept away by the broom. 

13. We may rest assured that they have good reasons 
for this singular choice, and that the situations are not 
undesirable, or the ants would not seek them. 

14. In the first place, the ants must have a care to 
supply their growing family with food, and where could 
they fare better than near the homes of man ? The tiny 
crumbs dropped by the children are treasures to the eco- 
nomical ants, whose sharp eyes see many chances for feast- 
ing upon things we have thrown aside as useless. 

15. Then, too, the bed of fine gravel which the brick- 
layer smooths so carefully to lay his bricks on is a fine 
place for the ants to burrow in. The sun, shining upon 
the bricks, heats them, and also the earth beneath, and 
makes a warm place for the ants to put their larvae when 
they bring them up out of their nests. 

16. You know how common it is, on turning over large 
stones, to find the ground beneath covered with the white 
larvae of ants, which are quickly carried away and hidden. 
The stones become heated during the day, and retain the 



140 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

heat long after the sun has set. Ants, no doubt, select 
these spots that they may secure a safe, warm place in 
which to hasten the development of their larvae and pupae. 

1 7. Singular Relations with Plant-lice. — Ants feed chief- 
ly upon insects, killing great numbers of them, and they 
also eat honey, fruit, and almost any sweet substance. 
This liking for sweets has led them to form singular re- 
lations with our common green plant -lice, the aphides. 
The plant-lice secrete a sweet liquid called honey-dew, of 
which ants are very fond, and which they obtain by tap- 
ping the lice with their antennae. 

18. Some species of ants ascend into bushes in search 
of these lice, and, having found them, watch over and de- 
fend them from attacks by other insects. Sir John Lub- 
bock says that the ants take care of the brown eggs of 
aphides during winter, carrying them to the lower cham- 
bers of the nest when it is disturbed. In the spring, when 
the young aphides hatch, they are brought out and placed 
on tender shoots of plants. 

19. This is a remarkable instance of forethought. The 
ants derive no immediate benefit from the eggs, yet by 
taking care of them they secure a supply of their favorite 
honey-dew for the following summer. 

20. Capturing Slaves. — Fierce battles are fought between 
different colonies of ants apparently for the sole purpose 
of capturing slaves. This instinct is so strong with the 
common red-ant that it is spoken of as the " slave-mak- 
ing ant." It frequently invades the nests of black-ants, 
and fearful struggles occur between the two colonies. 

21. When about to attack the enemy, red-ants leave the 
nest in full force and march directly to the battle-field. 
It is not a general warfare, but each red-ant seizes upon 
some black one, and makes a desperate effort to kill it. 



ANTS. 



141 



After the battle, if the red-ants are victorious, they enter 
the conquered nest and cany off the larvae and pupse, 
which they bring up as slaves. These young slaves enter 
at once upon a life of toil, and make no effort to escape. 

22. Degrad- 
ing Effects of 
Slavery.— It has 
been noticed 
that this sys- 
tem of slavery 
has a degrad- 
ing tendency 
among ants, as 
it is well known 
to have among 
men. Some of 
the slave-mak- 
ing ants are so 
accustomed to 
being waited 
upon that they 
have lost the 
art of building 
and of caring 
for their young, 
and are entire- 
ly dependent 
upon their 
slaves for these 
services. They have even lost the habit of feeding them- 
selves, and, although surrounded by food, they will starve 
unless fed by others. 

23. The Harvesting Ants. — The harvesting ants of Texas 




Fig. 88. — Queen of Slate- 
making Ants (magnified). 



142 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

clear a circular space, ten or fifteen feet in diameter, around 
the entrance to their nests. Within this space nothing is 
allowed to grow but " ant rice " — a species of grass, the 
seeds of which are carefully gathered by the ants. 

24. The Driver-ants. — Many species of ants in hot coun- 
tries hunt in large packs. The driver-ants of Africa hunt 
in this way, and render valuable service in clearing away 
decaying animal matter that might otherwise cause dis- 
ease. The dread of visits from these ants compels the 
inhabitants to keep their dwellings comparatively clean. 
These hunting ants are said to be blind, and go out chiefly 
at night. 

25. Termites. — Termites, or white-ants, as they are called, 
do not properly belong here, as they are not true ants. 
Still, we will study something about them. They abound 
in all tropical countries, living in large communities and 
committing serious ravages. They build structures above- 
ground, often five feet high, composed of earth worked and 
patted until it becomes nearly as hard as stone. There 
is no external opening in these hills, but the entrance is 
placed at some distance, and is reached by underground 
galleries. 



OYSTERS. 143 



XXII. 
OYSTERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1. Mollusks: the Mantle. — Having taken this mere glance 
at the Articulates, we will begin our study of Mollusks. 
This division includes soft-bodied animals which are usual- 
ly provided with shells, and which pass by the general 
name of "shell-fishes." Their bodies are enclosed by a 
delicate membrane called a " mantle," whose office it is to 
secrete the shell. On opening an oyster we see this thin, 
glistening mantle lining the shell as well as covering the 
oyster. 

2. The Shell adapted to its Surroundings. — The shell is 
useful in protecting the soft body of the mollusk, and its 
strength and thickness are generally in proportion to the 
dangers to which the animal is exposed. Those species 
inhabiting shallow places in the ocean near the shore, and 
hence exposed to the beating of the waves, have stronger 
shells than those living in deep water. Fresh- water mol- 
lusks, on the other hand, generally have delicate shells. 

3. Another provision of nature for the safety of the help- 
less mollusks may be seen in their coloring. Those which 
spend most of their lives at rest near the same spot, as 
oysters and clams do, are of the same general color as 
their surroundings. On the contrary, those that move 
about, as pectens and gasteropods, are often tinted with 
rich and beautiful colors. 



Mi ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

4. A Bivalve Shell. — When a shell consists of two sep- 
arate pieces or valves opening by a hinge, it is called a 
bivalve. 

5. The Shell of an Oyster examined. — A careful exam- 
ination of one mollusk will help us to understand all the 
others ; therefore we will take an oyster as our type. If 
we cannot obtain a living oyster, let us at least have the 
shell, and examine it carefully. What is the first thing 
you see? Is it the thin layers of which the shell is com- 
posed ? 




Fig. 89. — Oyster in the Shell (with Mantle removed from the Upper 

Surface). 

A, muscle; B, mantle; C, gills; D, labial palpi; E, hinge; F, month; G, liver 
and stomach ; II, heart. 



6. These layers are very interesting. You will soon sus- 
pect that they have been caused by the growth of the 
oyster. By looking on the outside of the shell you may 
see the lines of growth, and perhaps you can detect the 
shape of the oyster when it was very small. The delicate 
mantle (B) has deposited new layers of shelly matter upon 



OYSTERS. 145 

the inside from time to time, each layer extending a little 
beyond the edge of the last, and increasing the size of the 
shell. 

7. After an oyster has obtained its full growth the shell 
does not increase further in size, but it becomes thicker 
by the addition of one layer inside of another, so that the 
age of an oyster may be estimated by the thickness of its 
shell. This thickening is readily seen at the hinge (E), 
which seems to have grown in until it encroaches upon 
the space intended for the oyster. Yet you will see that 
at one time the hinge was at the very tip of the beak. 

8. In a freshly opened oyster you will notice a tough 
brown band in the hinge ; this is the ligament which 
unites the two valves, but, strangely enough, it acts like 
a spring which is constantly tending to throw the shell 
open. Let us see what causes this. The elastic, horny 
fibres which form the ligament are placed endwise be- 
tween the valves; consequently, they are squeezed when 
the shell is closed, and they try to make room for them- 
selves. If the ligaments in the hinge push the shell open, 
how, then, do you suppose it can be closed ? 

9. The purple spot on the inside of each valve shows 
where a muscle was attached which extends right through 
the body of the oyster (A), and holds the two valves 
together. You know the oysterman has to cut the oyster 
loose from the shell at this point with his knife, and this 
is the only place at which the oyster is attached to the 
shell. The muscle is the tough part of the oyster, and 
when it shortens itself the valves are drawn together. 
If the muscle lengthens, the valves fly open, as is the case 
when the oyster dies. Bivalves naturally stand open with 
a stream of water flowing over the gills, unless they are 
forcibly held together by the muscle. Fortunately for us, 



146 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

oysters live some time after being taken out of the water, 
but they keep their valves closed to retain their moisture. 

10. The inside of the shell is further marked by the 
" pallial line," which shows where the edge of the mantle 
has rested. By lifting the fringed edge of the mantle 
four delicate gills (C, Fig. 89) may be seen extending part 
way round the edge of the oyster. The gills are covered 
with cilia, which by rapid motion produce a current of 
water towards the mouth, bringing to it particles of food 
and, as the current flows away again, it carries off the 
waste matter. 

11. Food floated to the helpless Oyster. — The helpless 
oyster, fastened down to its bed, has no possible way of 
seeking food, and it is therefore entirely dependent upon 
these currents of water. Coming in this way, the food 
necessarily consists of very small plants and animals, 
which are abundant in the sea, especially in the quiet 
places where oj^sters flourish. Oysters live in shallow 
water attached to some fixed object by the lower valve, 
which is larger and deeper than the other ; in it the oyster 
lies as in a trough. 

12. The Oyster examined. — The mouth is a mere slit at 
the smaller end of the oyster (F), near the hinge. It is 
covered by four thin lips or folds of membrane, called 
"labial palpi" (D). An oesophagus leads to the stomach, 
and the intestine passes through the large liver (G), which 
is of a brownish-green color, and occupies most of the 
soft part of the oyster. 

13. Oysters have no true head. The heart (H) may 
easily be seen in a clear space near the muscle, and in a 
freshly opened specimen it will beat slowly and regularly. 
It consists of two sacs, one large and transparent, the 
other small and brownish. 



OYSTERS. 147 

14. Large Number of Young Ones. — Spawning season oc- 
curs during the summer months, at which time the eggs 
floating in the fluid around the gills give to it a thick, 
creamy appearance. Oysters are not then in good con- 
dition for food. They produce an immense number of 
young ones. It is thought one oyster may yield a million 
in a season, and the whole number of young oysters 
thrown out from an ordinary oyster-bank is almost incal- 
culable. The eggs leave the parent shell in puffs of milky 
fluid, and are sometimes so thick as to make the water 
look clouded until they are scattered by the waves. 

15. They settle for Life. — When the young ones are 
hatched they swim about for a time, then attach them- 
selves for life to some solid object. Unless they find a 
clean, hard surface to fasten to, the little things will prob- 
ably perish in the mud or be devoured by larger animals. 
A very large proportion of the young is destroyed in this 
way. 

16. Oyster-beds. — Oyster-beds generally exist in brack- 
ish water upon a bottom of clay or mud which is firm 
enough to prevent the oysters from sinking into it. The 
water must also contain lime to supply the oyster with 
the material for its shell. It is found that oyster-beds 
increase in the direction of the current, the young ones 
having drifted with the tide before settling. 

17. Cultivation of Oysters. — In addition to natural oys- 
ter-beds, there are many " oyster farms," where these deli- 
cious mollusks are regularly cultivated. Stakes are driven 
in the mud in shallow water, and branches of trees, rough 
boards, or stones are placed between them for the baby 
oysters to fasten themselves to. When the nursery is 
ready, several boat -loads of oysters are dropped near 
the spot. The oysters rapidly increase in size and nura- 



148 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

bers, and are ready for the table in from two to four 
years. 

18. Oysters destroyed by Dredging. — Oysters are gener- 
ally fished with a dredge. As this instrument is dragged 
over the bed, the teeth pull up the oysters, both large 
and small, from their resting-place. Those that are too 
young for market are thrown back into the water, and if 
they fall oh a suitable surface they will again attach them- 
selves, and continue to grow. Many of them, however, 
sink in the mud and are suffocated. 

19. The process of dredging is also destructive to the 
oysters which remain on the bed, as they are roughly 
torn from each other and dragged into the mud. Here 
they cannot open their valves without admitting the mud, 
and this is certain death to an oyster. 

20. Oysters are highly esteemed for food on account of 
their delicious flavor, and the demand for them is con- 
stantly increasing. This leads to excessive fishing of the 
oyster-beds, and in many places the beds yield a much 
smaller supply than formerly. Such is the case with many 
of the European oyster-beds. The French government 
has been obliged to take control of those on its shores, 
and to enforce certain laws with regard to fishing them. 



MUSSELS AND PECTEXS. 



U9 



XXIII. 
MUSSELS AND PECTENS. 

SUB KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1. Marine Mussels. — Marine mussels grow in large beds 
in shallow water, fastened to stones and sand-banks, and 
making a solid black mass. They often cling to posts 
and piers, where they are left uncovered when the tide is 
low. At such times they keep their shells tightly closed, 
like barnacles. 






Fig. 89a. — Bunch of Mussel -shells. 

2. The Foot of the Mussel. — The structure of mussels is 
similar to that of oysters, except that they have a tough 
foot. This is a thick, fleshy organ, which may be pushed 
out to a great length. In different species of mollusks 
the foot has various uses, enabling the animal to push it- 



150 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

self about or to leap, while often it is used for boring 
holes in the sand or mud. Although this organ helps 
some mollusks to move about from place to place, it does 
not resemble a real foot, but is more like a tongue. 

3. The Byssus. — Mussels are hatched within the shell of 
their parents. After leaving the shell, and swimming 
around for a while, they attach themselves to some ob- 
ject by silken threads called byssus. At the base of the 
foot is a gland for secreting the fluid byssus, which, when 
dry, forms into brown threads not unlike the silk of spi- 
ders and caterpillars. The foot attaches this sticky fluid 
to some object, and is then withdrawn, leaving the silk 
fastened to the surface. Mussels are also joined to one an- 
other in great bunches, as well as to the bed of the ocean. 

4. The threads of byssus are long enough to admit of 
slight motion, as the mussels float and drift back and 
forth, so these animals are not compelled to remain in one 
position, as oysters do. If the byssus is broken the mus- 
sels attach themselves again by other threads. 

5. How strange it seems that these lowly sea-creatures 
should spin silk ; yet the long, fine threads of byssus have 
sometimes been woven into gloves and stockings, and even 
into cloth. 

6. The fresh-water mussels have no fierce waves and 
tides to resist, and therefore do not secrete byssus. 

7. Mussels cultivated for Food. — Salt-water mussels are 
used for food, and are cultivated like oysters. When the 
young mussels have reached the size of a small bean they 
are scraped in masses from objects to which they have 
adhered, and are carried in baskets to places suited for 
their growth. They soon attach themselves to posts and 
branches of trees prepared for them, and are transplanted 
in this way three times before reaching their full size. 



MUSSELS AND PECTENS. 151 

8. The Epidermis of Shells. — All living shells have an 
outer layer of animal matter called epidermis ; they have 
no lustre upon the exterior until this epidermis is taken 
off and the surface is polished. Mussel-shells show beau- 
tiful blue tints when the epidermis is removed. 

9. The Color heightened by the Action of Light. — The 
color of shells depends much upon the action of light, and 
those grown in shallow water have generally brighter col- 
ors than those grown in deep water. The largest and most 
highly colored shells are found in the tropics, whereas arctic 
shells are mainly small and dull. The peculiar lustre of 
shells is due to the minute edges of alternate layers of 
carbonate of lime and animal tissue. In order to fully 
enjoy these treasures of the ocean, we must see them 
under the sparkling water, where their beautiful forms 
and colors are heightened by 

" The sun, and the sand, and the wild uproar." 

10. How Pearls are Formed. — Pearls are formed in shells 
when grains of sand lodge between the mantle and the shell 
and become coated with the shelly matter, or " nacre," 
which the mantle secretes. Fresh - water mussels yield 
pearls that are sometimes quite valuable, but the finest 
pearls are obtained from the pearl-oyster. The pearl-oys- 
ter in Fig. 90 is the circular shell, which has a straight 
hinge and one pearl clinging to it, and which is partly cov- 
ered by the mussel-shell. 

11. Pearls mostly have a nucleus of sand in the centre, 
and the shelly layers are arranged around it like the coats 
of an onion. The Chinese take advantage of this fact, and 
sometimes place small images or beads inside the shell, 
allowing them to remain until they are coated with pearl. 
Some of these are shown at the right of the picture. 



152 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 90. — Pearl-bearing Shells. 



12. Pearl Fisheries. — The most important pearl fisheries 
are on the coast of Ceylon. The same locality is not fished 
every year for fear of impoverishing it. The labor of div- 
ing for pearl-oysters is very severe. The divers remain un- 
der water only thirty seconds at a time, but they sometimes 
dive twenty times in one morning, and become very much 
exhausted. Having touched bottom, the diver gathers the 
oysters within reach, and places them in a net, then he 
pulls a cord as a signal to be drawn up immediately. At 
mid-day a gun sounds for the fishing to stop, and the boats 
are taken to the shore and unloaded before dark, in the 
presence of officers, so that no robbing shall be done. 

13. The oysters are allowed to remain on shore until 
they decompose. The pearls are then easily gathered 
from the gaping shells, and they are worked with pow- 
dered nacre to give them a good polish. Pearls may be 
round, ovoid, or pear-shaped. Those which adhere to the 



MUSSELS AXD PECTENS. 



153 



valves are consequently irregular in shape, and, as they 
are not so valuable as others, they are sold by weight. 
Mother-of-pearl is the lustrous layer taken from the inside 
of the shell of the pearl-oyster. 

14. Celebrated Pearls. — There are a few fine pearls so 
remarkable for their size and beauty as to have become 
historical, and their line of descent can be traced for 
generations. Most of these pearls belong to kings and 
princes. A famous string of pearls belongs to the Shahs 
of Persia in which each pearl is the size of a hazel-nut. 

15. Pectens. — Pectens (Fig. 91) are found in all seas, 
and of many different varieties. Their elegant shells are 
ribbed and mottled with various colors, and they grow by 
additions made to the 

edge, rather than by 
a thickening of the 
valves, as in the oys- 
ter. The hinge is ex- 
tended into broad ears, 
and is worked by a 
ligament placed in a 
tiny pit which you can 
easily discover. The 
mantle is fringed with 
tentacles, and has a 
double row of bright 
spots on the edge, 
which are thought to 
be eyes. 

16. Contrary to the habits of most bivalves, the pretty 
little pectens can swim through the water. As they are 
propelled by alternately opening and closing their valves, 
their movements consist of a succession of jerks. 

>7* 




91. — Pecten Shell. 



154 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XXIV. 

CLAMS AND RAZOR-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1, Markings upon the Inside of a Clam-shell. — The name 
"clam" is applied to many different species of mollusks 
along our coast having thick shells. Upon looking care- 
fully at one of 
these shells you 
will find that it 
differs in many 
respects from the 
oyster- shell 
which we exam- 
ined. You will 
at once notice the 
two marks (a, a', 
Fig. 92) left by 
the muscles, and 
you will readily 
infer that the 
valves of clam- 




Fig. 92. — Inside of a Clam-shell. 

a, a', impressions of the muscles; p, pallial line; s, bend 
occupied by the siphon ; h, hinge ; c, t, t', teeth. 



shells must be connected by two muscles. 

2. What curious freaks the pallia! line (p) has taken be- 
tween these two points. You can scarcely understand 
now why it should turn inward and make that deep bend, 
but when you have learned about the animal that inhab- 
ited this shell, the reason will be plain to you. 



CLAMS AND RAZOR-FISHES. 155 

3. Teeth in the Hinge. — There are also peculiarities in 
the hinge (A) which we must not fail to observe. The 
spaces between the three teeth (c, t, t') are exactly fitted 
b}^ two other teeth in the opposite valve, and these inter- 
lock when the shell is closed. In some species of clams 
there is a large, spoon-shaped hollow at the hinge, with 
long ridges on each side fitting into corresponding grooves 
on the opposite valve. The central hollow space contains 
the ligament, or spring, which, as we learned in the oyster, 
is always trying to push open the shell. 

4. Lines of Growth on the Shell. — On the outside of the 
shell the lines of growth are plainly seen, and you can 
trace the exact size of the clam at different periods of its 
history all the way back to babyhood. These shells do 
not grow thick with age. 

5. Mantle attached to both Valves. — A clam, we know, 
always looks torn and ragged on opening the shell. It 
is impossible to remove the valves and leave the animal 
smooth and uninjured, as the oyster is when taken from 
its shell. This is because the mantle is attached to both 
valves along the pallial line, making a closed bag for 
fluids, which is torn when we open the shell. 

6. Mantle rolled into Tubes forming a Siphon. — Water 
is admitted into this closed sac only through a siphon (b, 
c, Fig. 93), which is in reality the mantle rolled up into 
two tubes. Through one of these tubes a stream of sea- 
water enters, and, circulating under the mantle, passes 
down to the mouth and gills. It is then thrown out by 
the second tube, carrying off with it all waste matter. 
The circulation of water is kept up by countless cilia 
which line the tubes, and which, by their constant waving 
motion, draw the water towards the gills. 

7. The tentacles at the entrance of the siphon are very 



156 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

sensitive to the touch, and keep out all floating particles 
except the very small ones which are suitable for food. 

8. You will now understand that the curious bend (s) 
in the pallial line (Fig. 92) is the impression left by this 
siphon. 

9. Organs. — The gills and the labial palpi of the clam 
are similar to those of the oyster. The heart is under the 
hinge, and, strangely enough, the intestine passes directly 




sr 



Fig. 93.— Clam (Mactra). 
a, foot ; b, c, siphons. 

through it. Clams have a tough foot (a, Fig. 93) near the 
mouth, by means of which they push themselves along and 
dig holes in the sandy beaches, and to this life they are 
well suited. It is surprising to see how these animals can 
increase their size when they wish to extend the foot, the 
siphon, or the edges of the mantle. This is done by taking 
in sea-water through numerous pores in the skin. Touch 
the mollusk, however, when these parts are extended, and 
they are quickly drawn in and the shell closed. 

10. Clams lie Buried in the Mud. — Clams spend their 
time buried in the soft mud, with the mouth downward 
and the siphon extended far enough out of the shell to 
reach the water above. They may sometimes be seen 



CLAMS AND RAZOR-FISHES. 157 

spouting water from small holes on the beach. It is 
good sport to dig them out and see how nimbly they 
bury themselves again in the sand, using 
no tool but the foot. Many clams have 
only a short siphon which does not ex- 
tend far beyond the shell. 

11. Razor-fishes. — Some of these holes 
on the beach you may find occupied by 
razor -fishes (Fig. 94), which are not so 
easily caught as clams. These mollusks 
are abundant on all sandy shores, where 
they live buried in the mud. By means of 
the foot they dig a deep hole, which they 
do not leave. They raise themselves to 
the entrance of this hole, but disappear 
quickly upon the slightest alarm. 

12. Fishermen become very expert in deal- 
ing with the peculiar habits of timid sea- 
animals, but even the fishermen find the 
razor-fish hard to catch, and if they fail in 
the first attempt to capture it, no further 
efforts will induce the shy creature to ap- Yig. 94. 
near ao-ain. Razor-shell 

rL , II , T! • (Solen). 

13. lhe long, slender razor- shell is thin 

and brittle, with delicate tints of rose or violet, which are 
nearly concealed by the brown epidermis covering it. 




158 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XXV. 
GASTEROPODS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, GASTEKOPODA. 

1. Gasteropods a large Class. — Leaving the bivalves, we 
will now turn our attention to the gasteropods — a large 
class, which contains three-fourths 
of all living mollusks. They are 
found in fresh water as w T ell as 
in salt. Some, such as snails, live 
also on the land. 

2. Univalves. — Gasteropods are 
known as univalves, since they 
have but one shell, which is gen- 
erally a tube twisted spirally from 
a point called the apex. A few 
of their beautiful forms are given 
in Fig. 99. In almost any collec- 
tion of shells you will find some 
of these gasteropods. By sawing 
one open the spiral tube may be 
seen winding round a central col- 
umn, as shown in Fig. 95, and 
gradually growing larger towards 
the opening. You will be inter- 
ested in tracing the coil on the outside of these shells, 
observing that as the occupant increased in size it made 
for itself more and more room in the shell. 




Fig. 95. — Section of a 
Spiral Univalve. 



GASTEROPODS. 159 

3. Shell enlarged by Secretion from the Mantle. —We 
have before learned that all shells are secreted by the 
mantle. As the shell of the gasteropod needs enlarging, 
the mantle, stretching over the edge of it, deposits a layer 
of shelly matter, and thus the shell gains a new and 
larger rim. The outer edge of the mantle often contains 
bright-colored spots, which impart their tints to the rim 
of the shell, ornamenting it with bright streaks and lines. 




Fig. 96.— Whelk. 
o, operculum ; s, siphon. 

4. What Forms the Spines on some Shells ? — The edges 
and notches of the old rim are often marked upon the 
outside of the shell, and there are sometimes long, bris- 
tling spines sticking out from them. How could these 
spines have been formed ? Wherever there is a spine, 
there must have been at that point a fold of the mantle 
pushed out over the rim of the shell to form a tube. 
This fold, like every other part of the mantle, deposited 
shelly matter, and finally formed the stiff spine. Of 



160 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




course, it is of no further use after the rim has grown 
beyond it. 

5. Most of those gasteropods that have the margin of 
the shell notched and lengthened into a canal are flesh- 
eaters, whereas those having an entire and even margin 
live on vegetable food. 

6. Gasteropods Highly Organized. — Gasteropods, as a 
general thing, are quite highly organized. They have a 
distinct head, with two tentacles, and eyes that are some- 
times stalked; they are believed to have the senses of 

hearing and of 



taste, also, which 
indicates a high- 
er stage of devel- 
opment than that 
of the oyster and 
clam. 

7. Siphon — 
Operculum. — 
Water is' admit- 
ted within the body by means of a siphon, and at this point 
the shell is often lengthened into a long canal. The thick 
tough foot may be extended entirely beyond the shell, but 
gasteropods are timid creatures, and when alarmed all 
parts of the body are instantly drawn in, and the entrance 
is closed with a horny plate on the foot, which is repre- 
sented at o, Fig. 96. This plate fits snugly in the shell, 
and is called the operculum. The operculum of some 
gasteropods consists of limestone; small ones of this kind 
are known as " eye-stones," and were formerly used to re- 
move irritating particles of dust from the eye. 

8. Lingual Ribbon. — Gasteropods have a remarkable 
tongue, which contains many sharp- pointed teeth set in 



B ^sat^ 

Fig. 97 



-Lingual Ribbons. 



A, portion of tongue of Velutina, enlarged ; B, portion 
of tongue of whelk, magnified; C, head and tongue 
of limpet; D, portion of same, greatly magnified. 



GASTEROPODS. 



161 




distinct rows (Fig. 97). The growth of the tongue con- 
tinues during the life of the animal, new teeth forming 
at the base of the tongue and growing forward to take 
the place of those that are worn off at the tip. This 
tongue is spoken of as the "lingual ribbon," or as the 
" odontophore." 

9. Shells bored by the Lin- 
gual Ribbon. — With the lin- 
gual ribbon gasteropods file 
holes in other shells, through 
which they suck out the soft 
body. Many strong shells 
that would apparently make 
an excellent defence are 
found to be pierced in this 
way by a round hole, the 
edges of which are perfectly true 
ing not only good tools, bat a skilful use of them 
(Fig. 98). 

10. Shells that are washed ashore are mostly empty, 
and now that your attention has been called to the fact, 
you will be surprised to see so many bearing this round 
hole, and telling the sad fate of their former inmates. 
You will find that the hole is made near the hinge, and 
directly over the softest part of the body. 

11. Digestion of Gasteropods. — In addition to the numer- 
ous teeth on the tongue of gasteropods there are hard 
plates in the stomach for crushing food. After being 
mixed with saliva, which is furnished by salivary glands, 
the food passes through a long oesophagus into the stom- 
ach. Here the food is acted upon by fluids secreted by 
the liver and other glands. It then passes into a long 
intestine, where the nourishing portions are absorbed into 



Fig. 98. — Clam-shell bored by Lin- 
gual Ribbon of Gasteropod. 



and even, indicat- 



162 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




g^ 



the blood, and sent with it to all 
parts of the body by the beating 
of the two-celled heart. 




Fijc. 99. — Sea-shells. 



GASTEROPODS. 



163 



12. Breathing. — Gasteropods breathe either by lungs 
or by gills, some of them coming frequently to the sur- 
face of the water for air. They push 
themselves along by the foot, and 
many of them swim freely through 
the water. 

13. Clusters of Egg-cases.— On the 
sea-shore we find many singular-look- 
ing objects, whose appearance alone 
would give us no idea of their real 
character. This is true of the odd- 
shaped egg-cases of many gasteropods. 




Fig. 100.— Egg-cases of 
Whelk. 



Among these are 
the eggs of the whelk (Fig. 100), 
which are found united in large 
masses, each egg in the cluster be- 
ing enclosed in a little sac of its 
own. 

14. Many of you have picked up 
on the sea-shore lon^ strings of the 
egg-cases of the pear-conch (Fig. 
101). These are very common on 
sandy beaches. They are composed 
of many cream - colored cases, or 
capsules, of a tough, leathery sub- 
stance, which diminish in size tow- 
ards both ends of the string. 

15. They contain eggs which 
hatch within the capsule, each little 
conch being provided with a tiny 
shell. After consuming the jelly- 
like fluid with which the capsule 

is filled, the animals work their way out of the leathery 

ba^ and burv themselves in the sand. 




Fig. 101. — Egg -cases of 
Pear-conch. 



164 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




16. If you examine the cases you will find a little 
round hole on the top of each one, which is closed by a 
gristly substance, and looks as if it 
were provided as an easy means of 
escape for the young conchs. Cut 
open a case, and if the little occupants 
have not already escaped, you will 
find it filled with lovely shells. 

17. The Nidus of the Natica.— One 
of the sea -snails (the natica, Fig. 
102) makes a ring-shaped nest, or " nidus," of fine grains 
of black and white sea - shore sand, glued together by 
the slimy substance in which 
the eggs are deposited. This 
nidus (Fig. 103) when first taken 
from the water is soft and leath- 
ery, but it becomes exceedingly 
brittle when dry. It somewhat 
resembles the broad rim of an 
old felt hat, and its surface is 
often thickly studded with the 

egg -capsules of another gasteropod, the nassa, which 
avails itself of this convenient place of deposit for its 
eggs. 




Fig. 103. — Egg-case of Natica. 



LIMPETS AND LAND SNAILS. 165 



XXVI. 
LIMPETS AND LAND SNAILS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, GASTEROPODA. 

1. Limpets. — Limpets are attractive little gasteropods 
living on those parts of the sea-shore which are left un- 
covered at low tide. Our best time to watch them will be 
when the shallow water is rippling over their bodies, and 
their conical shells are lifted that they may enjoy the 
full benefit of the bath. 

2. The Shell. — The univalve shell, you will observe, is 
not spiral, but is a simple oval shell, tapering to a point 
on the top like a tent. This shape 

gives great strength to the shell, 
and enables it to support a heavy 
weight without injury. The exte- 
rior of the shell is a dull gray col- 
or, without much ornamentation, Fig. 104.— Limpet-shell. 
but the interior is peculiarly smooth 
and lustrous, and is prettily marked by the pallial line. 

3. When under water, limpets move about slowly by 
means of a round foot, but as their gills cannot long bear 
exposure to the air, when the tide is out their shells are 
drawn down close to the rock and held there tightly. 

4. Limpets adhere firmly to the Rocks. — The foot has 
some power of adhering firmly to surfaces as if it were 
glued, and when the limpets are alarmed they hold on so 




166 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

tightly that it is difficult to remove them. In attempting 
to pry them off, the shell is often broken before they let 
go their hold. Limpets sometimes remain so long in one 
spot that the rock is hollowed out to their exact shape. 
Sea-birds are fond of eating them, and are so cunning as 
to thrust their bills under the shell when it is lifted. 

5. How Limpets Eat. — The limpet's head is furnished 
with a pair of eyes and a pair of tentacles. The lingual 
ribbon is covered with sharp teeth set in three rows, and 
is three times the length of the entire animal. Limpets 
feed upon sea-weed, sometimes making a noise with the 
tongue as it strikes upon the hard upper jaw in biting. 

6. A Large Limpet. — The limpets in tropical seas are 
larger and richer in color than ours. One species is found 
at the Strait of Magellan having a shell nearly a foot in 
width, which is used by the natives as a basin. 

7. Snails. — Limpets furnish us an example of gastero- 
pods that live partly out of water, but their cousins, the 
snails, which we will next consider, have gone a step 
farther and live altogether on land. 

8. It is amusing to watch the motions of these curious 
snails as they crawl about with their great shell houses 
on their backs, stretching out their feelers, then suddenly 
drawing them in again. All at once some fancy seems to 
strike these uncertain individuals, and the whole slimy 
dark-gray body is pulled back into the shell. 

9. The Shell. — The shell is remarkably light and delicate, 
and you may easily trace the coil upon the outside. In 
some species the edge is plain and sharp, while others have 
the edge folded back to make a smooth, firm border. 

10. Senses of Sight and Smell. — Snails are better trav- 
ellers than limpets, and far more active. Like them, they 
have a foot and a lingual ribbon. Besides the long tenta- 



LIMPETS AND LAND SNAILS. 



107 




Fig. 105. — Anatomy of a Snail. 

a, month; b, foot; c, anus; d, lung; e, stomach, covered ahove hy the salivary 
glands; /, intestine; g, liver; h, heart; i, aorta; j, gastric artery; k, artery of 
the foot; I, hepatic artery; m, abdominal cavity; n, irregular canal communi- 
cating with the abdominal cavity, and carrying the blood to the lung; o, vessel 
carrying the blood from the lung to the heart. 

cles tipped with black eye- specks, snails have a shorter 
pair, which, it is thought, are organs of smell. This lat- 
ter sense is apparently more keen than their sight, since 
they are attracted by odors of fruit and vegetables, though 
they do not seem to see obstacles placed in their way. 

11. The Breathing Organ. — The breathing organ of snails 
is a chamber lined with a net-work of blood-vessels {d, 
Fig. 105), and supplied with air by a small orifice which 
may be seen to open occasionally. The air is then ex- 
pelled from this chamber by drawing the body into the 
narrow part of the shell. 

12. Where Snails Live. — Snails delight in warm, damp 
weather, and they may be easily found in shady places in the 
woods. When winter comes they hide in the ground, and 
close their shells with successive layers of mucus, which, 
when dry, form a hard membrane over the opening. Their 
eggs are laid loose under damp leaves and stones. 



168 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

13. These land mollusks have perhaps gradually ac- 
customed themselves to living, first in marshes, then in 
damp, swampy places, until finally we have some species 
living entirely upon dry land. Still, their favorite spots 
are the shady, moist ones. 

14. Snails eaten for Food. — In many parts of Europe 
snails are eaten for food, and they are sometimes painted 
on the sign -boards of restaurants and drinking shops. 




Fig. 106. — An Edible Snail. 

They were considered a delicacy by the ancient Romans, 
who served them at their funeral entertainments. In the 
buried city of Pompeii, among other curious relics, heaps 
of snail - shells, which are the remains of these funeral 
feasts, are found in the cemetery. 

15. Young Snails. — Common snails kept through the 
winter in the damp earth of our window plants will 
prove a source of great interest. In the spring they de- 
posit tiny white eggs, so delicate as not easily to be lift- 
ed. On breaking one, a perfect little snail-shell may be 
seen within. Later on we have the gratification of see- 
ing the young snails start off for themselves, creeping up 



LIMPETS AND LAND SNAILS. 169 

and down over the rough places, and performing, on a 
small scale, all the manoeuvres of their elders. 

THE HOUSE-KEEPER. 

" The frugal snail, with forecast of repose, 
Carries his house with him where'er he goes ; 
Peeps out, and if there comes a shower of rain, 
Retreats to his small domicile amain. 
Touch but a tip of him, a horn, 'tis well — 
He curls up in his sanctuary shell. 
He's his own landlord, his own tenant ; stay 
Long as he will, he dreads no quarter-day ; 
Himself he boards. and lodges; both invites 
And feasts himself; sleeps with himself o' nights. 
He spares the upholsterer trouble to procure 
Chattels ; himself is his own furniture, 
And his sole riches. Wheresoe'er he roam, 
Knock when you will, he's sure to be at home." 

Charles Lamb. 



170 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XXVII. 
THE OCTOPUS, OR DEVIL-FISH. 

SUB - KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, CEPHALOPODA. 

1. Cephalopods. — The only group of mollusks remaining, 
which we will study here, is that of the cephalopods — a 
group which contains the most highly organized animals 
among the mollusks. The name cephalopod is derived 
from two Greek words which mean feet on the head. To 
this class belong the octopus, cuttle-iish, squid, etc. 




Fig. 107. — Octopus. 



2. The Body covered with a thick Mantle. — With the ex- 
ception of one variety, cephalopods have no shell. The 
body is covered with a thick bag or mantle, which is 



THE OCTOPUS, OR DEVIL-FISH. 



171 



beautifully spotted, and which possesses the power of 
changing its color. The color is generally a mottled 
brown, but when irritated it changes to a reddish or pur- 
ple hue, passing rapidly from one tint to another. 

3. The nearest Approach to a Brain. — The head is dis- 
tinct from the rest of the body, and contains nervous 
ganglia, protected by a cover- 
ing of cartilage, which is the 
nearest approach we have seen 
to the brain of vertebrates. 
The large staring eyes are 
likewise more nearly perfect 
than any we have yet found. 

4. The Arms. — The eight 
arms, or feet, whichever we 
choose to call them, surround- 
ing the mouth are the most 
striking feature of the octopus 
(Fig. 107). They sometimes 
grow to a great length, and 
they have two rows of suckers 
on the underside (Fig. 108), 
which adhere so firmly to ob- 
jects within their reach that 
these animals are dangerous 
foes. Fastening the suckers to 
their prey, they draw it down 
to their mouths, and hold it firmly until it is torn in pieces. 

5. The Parrot's Beak. — The mouth opens into a throat 
which is well supplied with implements for crushing food. 
In addition to a lingual ribbon, here are two large horny 
teeth, w r hich from their shape are known as the " parrot's 
beak" (Fig. 109). 




Fig. 108. — Suckers on the Arm 

OF A ClJTTLK-FISH. 

a, hollow axis of the arm, contain- 
ing nerve and artery; c, cellular 
tissue ; d, radiating fibres ; h, raised 
margin of the disk around the ap- 
erture /, g, which contains a re- 
tractile membrane, or "piston," i 



172 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 109. — The Parrot's Bkak. 



6. The Funnel. — The mantle is open at the neck, and ex- 
pands to admit water to a chamber lying within, which 
contains the gills. The rim of the mantle then closes by 

powerful muscles, 
and the body con- 
tracts, and forces the 
water out in a jet 
through the " fun- 
nel." This funnel is 
a tube provided with 
a valve which closes 
after the water has 
escaped, and allows 
no water to enter 
through it from the 
outside. 

1. The Ink-bag. — 
Within the body is a sac containing an ink -like fluid 
which these animals throw out also from the funnel when 
they are alarmed. The surrounding water is thus discol- 
ored with a dense black cloud, and the octopods are en- 
abled to escape from their enemies. This ink is some- 
times used in water -color painting under the names of 
sepia and India-ink. The contents of the ink-bags ob- 
tained from fossil octopods have sometimes been dis- 
solved, and still they yield sepia of a good quality. 

8. Octopods found in most Seas. — Octopods are found in 
most seas, those living in mid-ocean sometimes being very 
large. Within the last few years some large sj)ecimens 
have been taken on the Newfoundland coast. Wonderful 
stories are told of octopods, but it is difficult to know how 
much of fable may have been interwoven with the truth. 
We at least know that they are active creatures, often 




THE OCTOPUS, OK DEVIL-FISH. 



173 



jumping out of the water, and that they have a strange 
fashion of swimming backward. 

9. Manner of Propelling Themselves. — Their only means 
of propelling themselves is by forcing water out of the 
funnel, the successive jets driving them backward, while 
the long arms trail uselessly after them. They also walk 
head-downward, with the rounded body above. 

10. Destroying Life. — They spend much of the time part- 
ly concealed by the rocks, 

with their arms floating 
round in search of some- 
thing to kill, for they are 
extremely greedy, destroy- 
ing large numbers of fishes, 
crabs, and mollusks. Like 
the tiger, they seem to find 
pleasure in killing more than 
they need to eat. Their hid- 
ing-places are sometimes dis- 
covered by the number of 
dead shells scattered about. 
Octopods likewise are de- 
stroyed in large numbers by 
porpoises and whales. 

11. The Cuttle-fish.— The 
cuttle-fish (Fig. 110) is much 
like the octopus, but it has 
two tentacles longer than the 
arms, with club-shaped ends. 
There are also narrow fins at 
the side of the body, and the 

mantle is supported on the inside by a thin plate which 
is known, as the cuttle-fish bone. Cuttle-fish bones are 




Fig. 110. CCTTLE-FISH (ONE - FITTH 

Natural Size). 



174 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



commonly used in bird-cages. If you examine one care- 
fully you will find it has no resemblance to true bone, 
being formed of layers, as shells are, with a hard cover- 
ing. As the captive bird pecks at this it obtains small 
particles of lime, which substance is needed for forming 
its bones. 

12. Cuttle-fishes do not lie concealed in caves waiting 

for their prey, but they come 
out boldly, and give their 
victims a fair chance. 

13. The Eggs in Bunches. — 
The octopus and cuttle-fish 
both attach their eggs by a 
cement secreted within their 
bodies to branches of sea- 
weed, where they hang like 
bunches of grapes. The moth- 
er sometimes selects a snug 
retreat in the rocks for rais- 
ing her young family, and 
barricading the entrance with 
pieces of rock or piles of shell, 
she allows no one to enter. 

14. She is said to examine 
her eggs and rub them, some- 
times syringing them with 
her funnel, as if to keep off 

parasites. In about five weeks the eggs are hatched. The 
little creatures are about the size of a grain of rice, with 
eight points from which the arms will grow, and they 
already have the power of changing their color. The 
mother is much exhausted after her long confinement, her 
nourishment the while not having been sufficient. 




Fig. 111.— The Squid. 




THE OCTOPUS, OR DEVIL-FISH. 



175 



15. Used as Food. — In many countries these evil-looking 
creatures are used for food. They are highly esteemed 
on the shores of the Black 

Sea, for, as they are neither 
meat nor fish, they can he eat- 
en during the long fasts of 
the Greek Church. 

16. In Southern Italy the 
octopus is taken alive to mar- 
ket, and displayed in large 
tubs filled with sea -water. 
Here the animals writhe and 
twist their arms, and display 
their dread suckers. They 
all look straight in front of 
them with their great eyes, 
and at frequent intervals dis- Fi 
charge water violently from 

their funnels in short, quick jerks. When a purchaser 
has selected one, the salesman seizes the octopus by the 
neck, and kills it by a skilful twist. 

17. The Squid. — The squid (Fig. 112) is another one of 
the cephalopods. It is found in great numbers along the 
sea-shore, and is very generally used for bait in cod- 
fishing. 

18. The eggs of the squid are enclosed within pod- 
shaped masses of stiff jelly, many of which are clustered 
together in one bunch. These pod-shaped pieces of jelly 
are sufficiently transparent to show the presence of many 
small eggs when held up to the light. 




112. — Egg-cluster of Squid. 



176 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XXVIII. 

THE ARGONAUT. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, CEPHALOPODA. 

1. The Argonaut. — The argonaut, or paper-nautilus, is 
regarded as one of the most beautiful objects in the ocean. 
Who would have thought of finding a celebrated beauty 
in the same family with the disagreeable octopus ! The 
charm must certainly be due to that lovely white shell 
which is prettily ribbed and fluted, and so transparent as 
to show the varying silver and rose tints of the body 
underneath. 

2. Resemblance to the Octopus. — Notwithstanding these 
attractions, our eyes are now sufficiently trained to find in 
the argonaut many points of resemblance to the octopus. 
There are the unmistakable suckers on the arms, the great 
wide-awake eyes, and the curious funnel projecting be- 
yond the shell just below them. 

3. The Shell secreted by the broad Arm. — In addition to 
these, there are many new points of interest. You will 
notice in the upper figure of this picture that the two 
hinder arms are spread out into flat, sail-like membranes, 
which here only partly cover the shell. They may, how- 
ever, be extended so as to cover it entirely. Indeed, the 
shell has been secreted by these broad membranes, and 
if it is broken in any way, the injuries are soon repaired 
by new shelly matter deposited just where it is needed. 




Fig. 113. — Argonauts. 



THE ARGONAUT. 179 

4. The Body not fastened to the Shell. — Although the 
argonaut lives in this shell, its body is nowhere fastened 
to it, neither does it fit the shell and fill it up, as other 
mollusks do. It merely sits in the graceful shell as in a 
boat, and holds on by its webbed arms. 

5. Fanciful Stories. — Fanciful stories have been told of 
the argonauts, and persons were led to believe that they 
sailed over the waves, with their webbed arms held aloft 
as sails to catch the breezes, and that their straight arms 
were used as oars. So far from sailing in this fantastic 
fashion, the argonaut rarely comes to the surface, but 
passes its days in deep water or upon the bottom of the 
ocean. Here it crawls head-downward, with its shell over 
its back, using its arms in place 'of feet. 

6. In reality the argonaut swims just as its relatives do 
— by squirting itself backward. Gathering the arms to- 
gether in a straight line, as shown near the middle of 
Fig. 113, it takes in sea- water under the mantle, and for- 
cibly expels it from the funnel. 

7. How snugly the lowest one in the picture has tucked 
itself away in the shell ! Still, it has an eye for all that 
goes on around it. 

8. A Dainty Shell for a Cradle. — The charming part of 
our story has yet to be told, for you must know that these 
dainty shells are merely nests, with which the females are 
provided to protect themselves and the bunches of eggs 
which they carry. The young ones are hatched in this 
lovely floating cradle, and are thus shielded from many 
dangers to which they would be exposed in the open sea. 
In the middle figure you may see the large bunch of eggs 
on top of the shell and partly concealed by the body of 
the parent. 

9. The Male Argonaut. — The male argonaut is very un- 



180 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

like the female. Not being more than an inch in length, 
and having no shell, it was not recognized until quite re- 
cently as the mate of the handsome paper-nautilus. 

10. Habits Unknown. — These animals live in tropical 
seas, but their shells have sometimes been washed on our 
own shores. It is impossible to know the habits of such 
deep-sea dwellers, since their haunts are completely hid- 
den from our view. 

11. Argonauts have interested thoughtful men from a 
very ancient date. Their appearance on the water was 
welcomed as an indication of fine weather, and one of the 
Greek poets long ago wrote, "O fish, justly dear to navi- 
gators ! thy presence announces winds soft and friendly ; 
thou bringest the calm, and thou art the sign of it." 



THE PEARLY NAUTILUS. 181 



XXIX. 
THE PEARLY NAUTILUS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, MOLLUSCA : CLASS, CEPHALOPODA. 

1. The Pearly Nautilus. — The most interesting of all the 
cephalopods is perhaps the pearly nautilus. Unlike other 
members of its class, this animal is supplied with a true 
external shell, which is divided into many chambers ; 
hence, it is often called the " chambered nautilus." 

2. The Chambered Shell. — In its natural condition the 
outside of the shell resembles white porcelain streaked 
with reddish-brown stripes. The nautilus shells usually 
seen in cabinet collections have been polished ; this out- 
side striped coating has thus been removed, and nothing 
remains but the lustrous pearl underneath. 

3. The shell is elegantly shaped and proportioned, but 
gives no hint of the curious arrangement inside until it 
is cut open. It is then found to contain many chambers 
partitioned off by curved, pearly plates which you can 
readily see in Fig. 114. The animal always occupies the 
outer and larger chamber, as here represented, retiring 
from it in its turn and walling it up as the shell increases 
in size to meet the needs of the growing body. 

4. In this way each chamber has been successively the 
home of the nautilus, and has been abandoned when it 
ceased to be desirable. 



182 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

" Year after year beheld the silent toil 

That spread his lustrous coil ; 
Still, as the spiral grew, 
He left the past year's dwelling for the new, 
Stole with soft step its shining archway through, 

Built up its idle door, 

Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more." 

5. The Siphuncle. — There is a curious tube, or "si- 
phuncle," extending from the body through all the cham- 
bers to the end of the coil. Its use is not positively known, 
although it may be instrumental in compressing the gas 




Fig. 114. — Pearly Nautilus, with Shell cut open 
(one-half Natural Size). 

with which the chambers are probably filled, thus affect- 
ing the weight of the shell, and enabling the animal to 
rise or sink in the water when it wishes. 

6. Means of Swimming. — Our beautiful nautilus has dis- 
covered no more graceful means of swimming than by ex- 



THE PEARLY NAUTILUS. 183 

pelling water from the funnel, as others of its family do, 
but it has not their peculiarity of squirting ink, insomuch 
as it possesses no ink-bag. 

7. The Organs. — It has many short arms, which are high- 
ly sensitive, but which have none of the suckers so remark- 
able in the cuttle-fish. The mantle is thickened into a 
leathery fold or hood over the head, which closes the shell 
when the animal retires within it. 

8. The mouth is surrounded by a fleshy lip and several 
additional folds, and it opens into a cavity where the par- 
rot's beak and the lingual ribbon are situated. The eyes 
are attached by short stalks to the sides of the head. 

9. Living Specimens rare. — Although nautilus shells are 
quite common, only a few specimens of the animal have 
ever been obtained ; from which fact it is inferred that 
the nautilus lives only at great depths, in tropical regions 
of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Unfortunately, we know 
almost nothing of its habits. 

10. The Last of its Race. — The nautilus is especially in- 
teresting, since it is the last member of a once numerous 
race of four-gilled cephalopods with 

external shells, which formerly oc- 
cupied the seas. Entire families 
have ceased to exist, and are known 
to us only by fossil remains, which 
are very abundant in the rocks, 
more than two thousand species 
being known. 

11. Ammonites.— Among the most 
interesting of these are the ammon- 
ites, one of which is shown in Fig. 115. Their chambered 
shells are much like nautilus shells, but instead of having 
partitions with plain edges, the partitions are folded and 




Fiu;. 115. — Ammonite. 



184 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

crinkled, forming curious patterns on the outside of the 
shell. Ammonites evidently lived in the deep sea. They 
are found of all sizes, varying from an inch to more than 
a yard in diameter. 

12. These ancient four-gilled forms have been succeeded 
by the two-gilled cephalopods (such as the octopus and cut- 
tle-fish) without shells, which now monopolize the ocean. 
The beautiful nautilus has gradually decreased in num- 
bers, and will probably become extinct also, as the rest of 
its family have done. 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 185 



XXX. 
BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VETCTEBRATA. 

1. The Backboned Family. — An important point in our 
studies is now reached, and we are about to enter upon 
that great sub-kingdom which is spoken of as the " back- 
boned family." The animals comprised in this large fam- 
ily differ so greatly from the Radiates, Articulates, and 
Mollusks, which we have been studying, that it seems 
necessary to pause here and examine some of their pecu- 
liarities. 

2. We shall find among the backboned animals a great 
variety of forms and habits ; still, we can trace in their 
physical structure an unbroken se- 
ries, and passing regularly up from 
the lower forms of this type, we 
shall gradually approach animals 
that are highly endowed with in- 
telligence and strength. Fishes, we 
know, live only in the water. So Fig . n 6.- A Vertebra. 
also do frogs and toads during the a> spina] caua] 
early part of their lives, but after 

they become fully matured they mostly live on the land, 
and have many points of resemblance to reptiles. In 
turn, the reptiles lead on to birds, which, by their pecul- 
iar strength and lightness, are fitted to live almost wholly 




1SG ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



in the air. Last of all are the mammals, whose superior 
endowments crown the list. 




3. The Spinal Column. — The most important peculiarity 
of this family is that the greater part of its members 
possess a "backbone," or, more properly speaking, a spinal 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



18' 



column, which is composed of a chain of small bones or 
vertebrae. Owing to this fact, the name Vertebrata has 
been given to the sub-kingdom. The vertebrae are united 
side fiy side by means of ligaments, and as each vertebra 
has an opening through its centre, as 
is shown at a, in Fig. 116, the chain 
forms a continuous canal throughout 
the entire length of the spinal column. 

4. The two Tubes of Vertebrates. — In 
the spinal canal, which we have just de- 
scribed, lies the spinal cord, safely en- 
cased in bone, and connecting with the 
brain through an opening in the lower 
part of the skull. You will observe, 
therefore, that the brain and the spinal 
cord, the large masses of the nervous 
system, are shut off by a special tube 
from other parts of the body. 

5. Carrying this idea yet further, 
we will now consider the main cavity 
of the body, which (as in the lion, Fig. 
117) is formed by the ribs, the back- 
bone, and the breastbone, as a second 
tube for containing the heart, lungs, 
stomach, etc. 

6. The distinction between Vertebrates 
and Invertebrates. — This especial pro- 
vision for the nervous system is the 
great distinction between vertebrates 
and those animals having no spinal col- 
umn, which are called invertebrates. The body of inver- 
tebrates may be looked upon as one single tube, in which 
the nervous system is not separated from other organs ; 




Fig. 118. — Human 
Brain and Spi- 
nal Cord send- 
ing off Xerves. 



188 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

whereas, the body of vertebrates consists of two distinct 
tubes, one for the large, nervous masses, the other for the 
organs of digestion, circulation, etc. 

1. The Nervous System. — The brain, lying within the 
skull, and the spinal cord proceeding from it, are the great 
centres which give rise to the symmetrical pairs of nerves 
passing to all parts of the body (Fig. 118). These nerve- 




Fig. 119. — Arm and Leg of a Man as they are Seen when on All-focrs. 

S, scapula; I, ilium, or ehinbone of pelvis; H, humerus; F, femur; O, olecranon, 
or tip of the elbow; P, patella; U, ulna; T, tibia; R, radius; Fi, fibula; Po, 
pollex, or thumb ; 11a, hallex, or great toe. 

centres are, as we have seen, well protected by the won- 
derful chain of bones constituting the spinal column. In 
addition to this arrangement, there is a series of nerves 
supplied to the thorax and abdomen known as the sym- 
pathetic nerves, which regulate the digestion, respiration, 
and the circulation of the blood. 

8. The Skull. — That strong, bony box which we call the 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



189 



skull not only contains the brain, but it also protects the 
delicate organs of sight and of hearing, as well as those 
of taste and smell, all of which are lodged in its bony 
cavities. 

9. The Skeleton. — Another peculiarity of vertebrates is 
that they possess a jointed skeleton which is always in- 
ternal. The hard bones composing this skeleton are not 
dead and lifeless, as they look to be, but they undergo a 
continual change, since they are nourished by the blood 
which, in its circulation 
through the bony tissues, 
carries off all the waste 
particles, and deposits new 
materials for their growth 
and repair. 

10. The Limbs. — Animals 
of this family never have 
more than two pairs of 
limbs, and these are joint- 
ed and turned away from 
the back. By far the great- 
er number of vertebrates 
are supplied with both pairs 
of limbs ; still there are some animals, as for instance the 
whale, in which the limbs are only partially developed, 
and others again, like the snake, in which the limbs are 
altogether wanting. 

11. As the limbs of different animals are employed for 
a great variety of purposes, we shall find that they are 
curiously modified to serve these various uses, yet a simi- 
larity may be observed in the structure of all. Thus the 
fore -legs of quadrupeds are represented by the arms of 
man, by the wings of a bird, and by the swimming-pad- 




Fig. 120. — Hind-leg of Alligator 
and Fore-leg of Seal. 

S, scapula ; I, ilium, or shinbone of pel- 
vis ; H, humerus ; F, femur : O, olecra- 
non, or tip of the elbow; IT, ulna; T, 
tibia ; R, radius ; Fi, fibula ; Po, pollex, 
or thumb. 



190 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



dies of a whale. If you should compare the arm of a 
man with the leg of a seal or the wing of a bat, as repre- 
sented in the accompanying figures, you will discover a 
close resemblance between them. 

12. The Digestion of the Food. — All vertebrates have a 
mouth, which generally is furnished with teeth. The food 
is mostly cut and divided in the mouth and mixed with 

saliva, after which it is swal- 
lowed and digested, and the 
nutritious portions are ab- 
sorbed into the blood. 

13. The Heart.— The heart 
of all vertebrates contains 
at least two chambers, and in 
the higher classes of animals 
it has four distinct chambers. 
These chambers are supplied 
with valves at their openings 
which allow the blood to pass 
through, but which close in 
such a manner as to prevent 
its return in the opposite di- 
rection. 

1 4. Circulation of the Blood. 
— Dr. Harvey, in 1619, was 

the first person that taught the great fact of the circula- 
tion of the blood, and it is now so well understood as to 
attract but little attention. We know that the blood of 
living animals is continually flowing to every part of the 
body through closed tubes, or blood-vessels, as they are 
called, the arteries being employed in carrying it from 
the heart, and the veins in returning it again. 

15. The Blood. — We are accustomed to think of the 




Fig. 121. — Fore and Hind Leg of 
a Tapir. 

S, scapula; I, ilinm, or shinbone of 
pelvis; H, humerus; F, femur; O, 
olecranon, or tip <>f the elbow ; P, pa- 
tella; U, ulna; T, tibia; R, radius; 
Fi, fibula. 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



191 



blood simply as a red fluid, whereas, upon examination, 
it is found to be a clear liquid, almost without color, in 
which floats a multi- 
tude of minute par- 
ticles or "corpuscles," 
so exceedingly small 
that they can be dis- 
covered only with a 
powerful microscope. 
Some of these corpus- 
cles are red, others 
are white. The red 
corpuscles have a ten- 
dency to run togeth- 
er into piles like but- 
tons on a string, and 
they are so numer- 
ous as to tinge the blood with their red color (Fig. 122). 
16. The Breathing of Vertebrates. — We shall find a great 
difference among these animals with regard to their man- 
ner of receiving a supply of fresh air. Fishes and am- 
phibious animals are furnished with gills, and derive their 
supply of air from the water, but the higher vertebrates 
breathe by true lungs, and the process of airing the blood 
is greatly assisted by the action of the skin. 




Fig. 122. — Blood Corpuscles of Man. 



192 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XXXI. 
FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, PISCES. 

1. Fishes. — It is not an easy thing to study the every- 
day life of fishes. Living as they do in the water, and 
keeping out of sight, our only hope of observing them is 
from an occasional glimpse, which gives us little oppor- 
tunity to learn their habits and peculiarities. Preserved 
specimens are of no great help ; they serve, however, to 
remind us that much of the charm of fishes lies in the 
grace of their movements and in the delicate lustre which 
plays upon their sides as they glide through the water, 
but which is lost soon after death. 

2. Fishes are well adapted to Swimming. — The shape of 
fishes is such as to admit of their swimming easily and 
smoothly through the water with. the least possible fric- 
tion. They are further aided in swimming by their 
smooth, slimy coating, which generally consists of scales 
overlapping one another like tiles on a roof. 

3. Dr. Hartwig says of fishes : " We wisely endeavor to 
imitate this peculiar form in the construction of our ships, 
yet the rapidity with which the fastest clipper cleaves the 
waters is nothing to the velocity of an animal formed to 
reside in that element. The flight of an arrow is not 
more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a salmon, or a 
gilt- head through the water. Every part of the body 




\ z r-—^m 



l<ig. 123. — Nest of the Sun-fish. 



FISHES. 



195 



seems exerted in this despatch : the fins, the tail, and the 
motion of the whole backbone assist progression ; and it 
is to this admirable flexibility of body, which mocks the 
efforts of art, that fishes owe the astonishing rapidity of 
their movements." 

4. The Vertebrae. — On examining the backbone of a fish, 
you will find it to consist of circular vertebra?, which are 
concave at each end. The space between the vertebra? is 
filled with a jelly-like substance, giving great freedom of 
motion. The ribs are not much curved, and are attached 
to the spinal column at one end. 



6 tTJorsal 




Fig. 124. — The Fins of a Fish (Pike-perch). 



5. The Fins. — Notice the two kinds of fins which are 
represented in Fig. 124. The "paired fins," which are ar- 
ranged on opposite sides of the body, are the true limbs 
of the fish. Those near the gills, named the pectoral fins, 
represent the fore limbs of quadrupeds, while the ventral 
fins, which are lower down, and which may sometimes be 
wanting, represent the hind limbs. Besides these paired 
fins there are other single fins upon the middle of the 
back and underneath the body. 

6. The fins are chiefly used to balance the fish in an up- 
right position, while the principal swimming organ is the 



196 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

tail, which is set vertically at the end of the spine, so as 
to work from side to side. 

7. The Swim - bladder. — As the weight of the body is 
greater than that of the surrounding water, most fishes 
are supplied with a "swim-bladder" (Fig. 125, vn) which 
connects with the oesophagus, and which, being filled with 
air, assists the fish to rise or sink in the water. 

8. The Gills. — Fishes' gills are leaf-like bodies lying in 
cavities on each side of the neck (Fig. 125, br), and cov- 
ered by plates called gill- covers; they may often be seen 
gently moving when a fish is in its native element. You 
may also notice the gills in fishes that have been arranged 
on a string for convenience in carrying; in such cases it 
is customary to put the string through the "gill-slit." 

9. The Manner of Breathing. — The breathing of fishes is 
a very simple* process. All the air they require is con- 
tained in the water, which enters freely at the mouth, 
passes over the gills, and escapes at the gill-slit. The 
blood continually circulating through the gills absorbs 
oxygen from the water and becomes purified. This 
breathing from water resembles the act of swallowing, 
with the important difference that the water passes to the 
gills, and not to the stomach. 

10. We sometimes say, when a fish is taken out of the 
river, that it dies for want of water. Strictly speaking, it 
would be more correct to say that it dies for want of air. 
Surrounded as it is by air, the fish can make no use of it, 
because it is not mixed with water, and the poor creat- 
ure flounces and throws itself uneasily about as it slowly 
suffocates. 

11. Circulation of the Blood. — The heart of fishes has but 
two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle, which are shown 
in the ideal plan of the circulation of fishes (Fig. 126), at 



FISHES. 



197 




Anatomy of the Carp. 



br, branchiae, or gill-openings; e, heart; /, liver; vn, vn', swimming-bladder; 
ci, intestinal canal; o, ovarium; u, ureter; a, anus; o', genital opening; 
u', opening of ureter. The side-view shows the disposition oi* the muscles in 
vertical flakes. 



198 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




a and b. Blood, after passing from the auricle to the 
ventricle, is sent to the gills to be purified. It then flows 

to all parts of the body before returning 

again to the auricle. 

12. The Teeth. — Fishes are generally 
well supplied with teeth, since they grow 
not only on the upper and lower jaw, 
but are sometimes found on the tongue 
and the throat. They have also large 
eyes without any lids. They have no 
external ears, yet they evidently notice 
sounds. Fishermen are aware of this 
fact, consequently they carry on their 
sport in profound silence, and the boys 
and girls who accompany them must 
leave their fun and laughter until the 
fishing is over. 

13. Their Enemies. — Although fishes 
seem to have a happy time as they dart 
about in the water, the truth of the mat- 
ter is they live in continual warfare, 
first pursuing their prey, and then, in 
turn, flying from their own enemies. 
They have probably more to suffer in 

this way than other animals, for a great many enemies 
are waiting to pounce upon them, their eggs, and their 
young ones. 

14. Flying-fishes. — Flying -fishes (Fig. 127) often leap 
into the air in large companies to escape pursuit, and 
their blue bodies and silvery wings glisten prettily in the 
sunlight. Even here they sometimes meet with new dan- 
gers from the greedy gulls and other sea-birds, so they 
find safety neither in the water nor in the air. The large 



Fig. 126.— Plan of 
Circulation in 
Fishes. 

a, auricle; b, ventri- 
cle; c, branchial ar- 
tery; e, branchial 
veins, bringing 
blood from the 
gills, d, and mining 
in the aorta, /; g, 
vena cava. 



FISHES. 199 

fins of these fishes act like wings, and enable them to take 
long, low leaps into the air, but they have no power of 
raising themselves after having once left the water. 



*V- 




127. — Flying-fish. 



15. The Eggs of Fishes. — The eggs of fishes are tiny 
affairs, covered with a thin skin, so transparent that the 
young fish may be seen tumbling around inside for a day 
or two before it is hatched. "When the baby-fishes first 
leave the egg they swim about for some time with the 
yolk-bag hanging underneath the body; they take no food 
during this time, but are nourished by the oily contents 
of the yolk-bag. 

16. Fishes produce large quantities of eggs, a single 
cod-roe, for instance, having been found to contain nine 
million eggs ; but, as we have just seen, a very large pro- 
portion of the young fishes are devoured ; being helpless 
little creatures, they fall an easy prey to their larger 
neighbors. 

17. Care of the Young. — Generally, fishes take no care 
of their eggs or their young ones. There are exceptions, 



200 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

however, to this rule, and some kinds of fishes prepare 
nests in the bottom of streams, like the sunfish at the be- 
ginning of this chapter, while the stickleback builds a true 
nest of grass and weeds fastened together with the sticky- 
slime of his own body (Fig. 128). There is a hole entirely 




Fisc. 128. — Nest of the Stickleback. 



through the nest, from one side to the other, that water 
may constantly flow over the eggs. The male defends 
the nest bravely, for, strangely enough, among fishes it 
falls to the lot of the fathers to build the nest and care 
for the young ones. 



FISHES. 2U1 

18. Those families are mostly large, and you may im- 
agine it is no easy matter to keep the active little ones to- 
gether when swimming is so natural to them. The attempt 
to protect them leads to some curious habits; as, for in- 
stance, the habit which many fishes possess of taking their 
young ones into their mouths for safety. In times of 
danger the father opens his wide mouth, and the whole 
swarm rushes into the temporary asylum thus provided. 

19. The Sea-horse. — The sea-horse (Fig. 129) has a nov- 
el way of protecting his precious infants, for he gathers 
them all into a curi- 
ous pouch on the low- 
er part of his body 
which is especial- 
ly provided for this 
purpose. The young 
fishes are taken into 
the pouch as soon as 

they are hatched, and „. .__ „ 

J 7 Jng. 129. — Iue Sea-horse. 

snugly carried there 

until they are old enough to take care of themselves. 
What an odd sight it must be when these spry little 
creatures are first turned out of their cradle into the wide 
ocean, and the whole swarm starts off to see the world. 

20. One would scarcely suspect this odd -looking sea- 
horse, with its long snout, of being a fish. It has a sin- 
gular habit of twisting its tail round some branch of sea- 
weed and standing upright in the water, as if watching all 
that takes place around it. Being a poor swimmer, it 
often floats w r ith the sea-weed for long distances in this 
erect position. 

21. Brilliant Coloring of Tropical Animals. — Tropical 
birds and flowers, we know, are brilliant in color; so also 




202 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

are the inhabitants of tropical oceans. We noticed this 
peculiarity in jelly-fishes and in shells, and the same is 
true with regard to fishes. Some of the gayest fishes live 
among the coral reefs. The warm waters in which the 
coral polyps thrive and spread their flower-like tentacles 
to the sun are further enlivened by glittering fishes, which 
glide in and out among the brilliant coral branches, and 
remind us of the similar fact that dazzling birds hover 
over the brightest flowers. 




Ffe. 130.— Shark. 



22. Selecting Mates. — We might suppose that these 
lowly creatures would not pay much regard to beauty in 
selecting their mates, but with fishes as with every other 
species of animal there are points of difference, which we 
would probably not notice, but which lead to the selection 
of certain individuals in preference to others. It has been 
observed that many fishes grow brilliant as the season ap- 
proaches for mating. All members of the trout family, 
for example, are arrayed in their brightest colors during 
spawning-time. 



FISHES. 



203 



23. Sharks. — Very unlike the graceful fishes we have 
been examining are those tyrants of the ocean, the sharks, 
which are by far the largest and strongest of the fishes. The 
stout body is well shown in the picture (Fig. 130), and you 
must not fail to notice how odd the tail is. The top point is 
much longer than the lower one, whereas the tails of most 
fishes nowadays are even. Sharks have several other pe- 
culiarities which cause them to be classed with an ancient 
race of fishes, few of which are now living. Their skele- 
tons do not consist of bone, but of hard gristle. Instead 
of a scaly covering, their skin is set with hard knobs, and 
the slits on the side of the neck take the place of gills. 




'TAT- 
Fig. 131. — Egg of a Shark. 



24. The Mouth. — The mouth, you see, is on the under- 
side of the head, and in consequence of this arrangement 
sharks are usually obliged to turn over before biting. A 
savage-looking mouth it is, too, with several rows of sharp 
teeth pointing backward. These teeth are never fixed in 
sockets, however, but are merely imbedded in the lining 
of the mouth. 

25. Sharks' Eggs. — The female shark lays but two eggs, 
which are enclosed in leathery, purse-shaped cases. The 



204 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

four corners of the case are lengthened into tendrils, 
which, becoming entangled in sea-weed, hold the egg in 
place. Part of the case has been removed from the egg 
which is shown in Fig. 131, that we may see, within, the 
young fish with the yolk-bag attached to it. The empty 
black cases of sharks' eggs are often picked up on the sea- 
shore, and the sand which rattles out of the hollow case 
may assure you that its former occupant has already 
escaped. 



THE MIGRATION OF FISHES. 205 



XXXII. 
THE MIGRATION OF FISHES. 

1. Migration of Fishes. — The curious habit possessed, 
by some animals of moving in companies from one place 
to another at certain seasons of the year is spoken of as 
" migration." We are probably most familiar with the 
migrations of birds, but many kinds of fishes yield to the 
same instinct, and their migrations are closely connected 
with the production of their eggs. 

2. A good illustration is furnished by cod, mackerel, 
and herring, all of which select shallow water near the 
coast for depositing their eggs, and approach the shore 
for this purpose in enormous shoals, or schools, as they 
are called. In these migrations the fishes are crowded so 
close together as almost to force one another out of the 
water, and they are pursued by many birds and marine 
animals, in their efforts to escape from which they are 
often washed ashore in masses. 

3. Busy Times among the Fishermen. — The arrival of 
these schools upon the coasts causes busy, bustling times 
among the fishermen, whose boats may then be seen hov- 
ering over them like great flocks of sea-birds, anxious to 
catch all they can while the harvest lasts. Mackerel-fish- 
ing is thought to be fine sport, and is performed under 
full sail. The faster the boat moves the better the mack- 
erel bite. They rush after the bait as if mistaking it for 



206 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

escaping prey, and as the boat glides through the great 
shoals of fish, all hands on board are kept busy hauling 
in the lines and putting on fresh bait. 




Fier. 132. — A Fishing Fleet. 



4. The Migration of Salmon. — The migrations of salmon 
are especially interesting. These fishes, although hatched 
in fresh water, pass the greater part of their lives in the 
ocean, and at certain seasons they ascend the rivers in 
large companies to deposit their eggs. It is believed that 
they return year after year to the same locality ; so the 



THE MIGRATION OF FISHES. 207 

baby salmon are raised in the old home of their parents, 
who, nevertheless, have become in the mean time great 
rovers. 

5. Efforts to reach the Source of the River. — Young- salm- 
on cannot live in salt water, consequently the eggs must 
be placed where there is little danger of the young fishes 
drifting out to sea, and "upon these journeys the impulse 
of the parents is so strong to reach the source of the riv- 
er that they seem determined to overcome all obstacles. 




Fig. 133.— Male Salmon. 

They even leap the water -falls, and in doing this they 
display great perseverance. In leaping they throw the 
body into a curve, resting on the head and tail ; they then 
make a sudden spring, which is greatly aided by the pres- 
sure of the tail upon the water. The first attempt is of- 
ten unsuccessful, and they fall, perhaps, upon the rocks or 
upon the bank of the river ; not discouraged by the fail- 
ure, they struggle back to the water and try again. 

6. It is now customary to place fish-stairs where there 
is a water-fall or a dam too high for the salmon to mount. 
These consist of a series of steps made of wood or stone, 
which divide the height into a succession of small falls. 
The salmon soon learn to leap from one step to another, 
and in this way they reach the top without difficulty. 

7. Spawning. — Salmon, it is said, have a leader on these 
journeys, and follow him in regular order. Having ar- 



208 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

n 




Fig. 134. — Salmon-fishing. 



rived at some suitable place, they hollow out nests in the 
bottom of the stream, and deposit their eggs, covering 



THE MIGRATION OF FISHES. 209 

them with gravel, and then taking no further care of 
them. 

8. They eat little or nothing while in fresh water, and 
they reach the spawning -ground bruised and exhausted 
by the hardships they have endured. They therefore rest 
for a while after the spawning process, which occupies 
eight or ten days, and then eagerly return to the sea. 




Fig. 135. — Female Salmon after Spawning. 

9. The Young Salmon. — The eggs left under the gravel 
finally lfatch out, and the young fishes work their way 
slowly down the river, to make their first visit to the sea. 
These fishes increase but little in size while in fresh water, 
w 7 hereas in the ocean the rapidity of their growth is almost 
incredible. 

10. The Shape and Color. — Salmon are remarkably grace- 
ful fishes, and their tapering sfeape is well suited to rapid 
motion. Their bluish -gray color shades into a silvery- 
white underneath, and the upper part of the body is 
marked with black spots. As breeding season approaches, 
they not only grow brilliant in color, but a change still 
more remarkable than this takes place in the mouth of the 
males. The under-jaw forms itself into a strong hook, 
wdrich may be seen in Fig. 133. This hook is used in the 
fierce combats between the males at that season, and it of- 
ten inflicts deadly wounds. 

11. The Delicacy of the Flesh.— The pink- tinted flesh of 



210 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the salmon is exceedingly delicate, and probably owes its 
peculiar flavor to the eggs of ecliinoderms and crustaceans, 
of which this fish is especially fond. 

12. Salmon -fishing. — Some of the British and Norwe- 
gian rivers contain celebrated salmon-leaps, and they are 
visited by many persons who enjoy the sport of salmon- 
fishing. The proper time for catching these fishes is when 
they ascend the rivers to spawn, for they are lean and 
poor on their return. At this time, however, they are 
ravenously hungry, and prove a serious annoyance to an- 
glers, whose artificial flies are designed to attract only the 
good fishes fresh from the ocean. Salmon are also caught 
with nets and weirs, and with the spear. 

13. The Cultivation of Fishes. — Much attention has re- 
cently been paid to the cultivation of fishes, which is 
merely the revival of an old art. A "fish -farm" con- 
sists of a set of troughs, standing each one a little high- 
er than the next in the series, with fresh water constantly 
flowing through them. In these troughs fish -eggs are 
hatched by artificial methods, and when the young fishes 
have grown to a suitable size they are successfully plant- 
ed in our rivers and streams. 



FROGS AND TOADS. 



211 



XXXIII. 
FROGS AND TOADS. 

BUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, AMPHIBIA. 

1. Frogs. — Most of you, perhaps, already know that the 
funny little tadpoles in our ponds and ditches turn into 
frogs. Let us notice the 

remarkable changes which 
take place before tadpoles 
can pass in this way from 
the life of a fish to that of 
a land animal. 

2. Frog Spawn.— We will 
begin with the eggs, which 
are little black specks not 
larger than shot, scattered 
through a lump of clear white jelly. 

" frog 




Fig. 136.— The Frog. 




Fis. 137.— Frogs' Eggs. 



This mass is called 
spawn," and it is 
mostly attached to sticks 
or grass in the water 
near shore (Fig. 137). The 
jelly holds the eggs to- 
gether, that they may not 
drift away, and it also 
supplies nourishment to 
the young animals when 
first hatched. 



212 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

3. Tadpoles. — If you should gather some of this frog 
spawn in the spring, and put it in a vessel of water with 
a few water-plants, you will have good entertainment for 
several weeks. First the round black specks begin to 
lengthen, then soon to wriggle about. Gradually the jelly 
mass disappears, and the young tadpoles, with big black 
heads, dart hither and thither, rapidly wagging their long 
flat tails as they swim through the water — a sight with 
which all country children are familiar. 




Fig. 138. — From a Tadpole to a Fkog. 



4. Changes Tadpoles undergo. — When they grow a little 
larger you can discover feathery bunches hanging at the 
sides of the head, as in Fig. 138, a. These are outside gills. 
After a time the wide mouth appears, and we find the 
tadpole trying to nibble at objects around it. Little by 
little the outside gills shrink away, and the tadpole then 
breathes by taking water in at the mouth and allowing 
it to run out through slits in the neck. In this way 
the water passes over internal gills the same as in fishes. 
Indeed, there is but little at this point in a tadpole's his- 



FROGS AND TOADS. 213 

tory to distinguish it from a fish, and it bears very slight 
resemblance to the form it is soon to develop. 

5. Eyes and nostrils now make their appearance (Fig. 
138, b), and soon two little lumps come on the sides, 
which will grow some day into hind-legs (c). The front 
legs do not show until later, and then the tadpole is well 
supplied with limbs, having four legs and a broad swim- 
ming tail, as you see at d. 

6. The odd creature will now be found spending much 
time at the surface, with its mouth out of water, for it is 
trying still another plan for breathing. 

7. While these changes have been taking place on the 
outside of the animal, still more important changes have 
been going on within its body. Lungs have been grow- 
ing, and as the tadpole accustoms itself to breathing with 
the new lungs, the blood gradually changes its course, and 
rushes to them to be purified, instead of going to the gills 
as before. Consequently, the internal gills are no longer 
needed, and they also shrink away. 

8. The young tadpole had at first a true fish's heart, 
with only two chambers, but now a third chamber grows, 
and we have our first instance of a three-celled heart. 

9. The True Frog. — This active little creature now de- 
serves the name of frog (Fig. 138, e). It swims with its 
new legs, and takes such long leaps that you must keep 
a close watch or it will jump out of your artificial pond 
and escape further observation. As the tail is no longer 
needed, it shrivels away little by little, like the gills, until 
there is no trace of it left. 

10. When they have reached this period, frogs, in their 
native home, are ready to hop boldly on shore, although 
most of their time is passed in the water, perched on some 
stick or stone. When cold weather comes, they drop to 



214 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the bottom of the pond, and spend the winter in a torpid 
state. 

11. Skeleton of a Frog. — Do you see in the frog's skele- 
ton (Fig. 139) how much longer the hind -legs are than 

the front ones ? 
This arrangement 
answers very well 
for leaping, and 
those long toes are 
usually joined with 
a web to assist in 
swimming. 

12. The Breath- 
ing. — You will also 
notice that there 
are no ribs, so the 
Fig. 139.— Skeleton of Frog. frog cannot breathe 

as we do. Our ribs 
are raised each time we breathe, and the air rushes in 
through the nose and mouth to fill the empty space thus 
made in our chests. But as the frog has no ribs by which 
to enlarge its chest, it simply closes its lips and swallows 
the air which is in its mouth. A frog has no other way 
of breathing, and it is possible to suffocate one by fasten- 
ing open its mouth. 

13. The Tongue. — The long tongue of these animals is 
fastened at the front of the mouth, and the sticky point 
is turned over so that it can dart forward instantly, then 
fold back to snap up living insects. 

14. The Development of Toads. — The history of toads is 
like that of frogs, except that their eggs are laid in long 
strings of jelly (Fig. 140), which may be found floating 
on ponds and ditches in the spring. As their young ones 




FROGS AND TOADS. 



215 




HO.— Toad's Eggs. 



can live only in water, these animals lay their eggs either 
in the water or on trees and plants overhanging a pond, 
into which they are washed 
by the rain. Large numbers 
of toads thus come to per- 
fection about the same time, 
and are ready to leave the 
water together and begin a 
new life upon the land. 
This they usually do after a 
shower, when all the sur- 
roundings are moist and at- 
tractive to these dwellers in the marshes, and, from the 
sudden appearance of the toads, it is a common belief 
that they have fallen from the clouds with the rain. 

15. The Surinam Toad. — The Surinam toad has a re- 
markable way of caring for its young ones. The eggs 
are laid in the water, and the father at once takes them 
up and places them on the mother's back, when the skin 
rises up around them, forming a little cell for each egg. 
In these curious nests the tadpoles pass through their 
various changes, remaining here until they become perfect 
toads. 

16. Tree-toads. — Tree -toads do not differ much from 
other toads, except that their toes end in suckers and they 
can easily climb the trees upon which they live. Most 
tree-toads are green or brown, and have a general resem- 
blance to the leaves or branches of the trees. 

17. Amphibious Animals. — Leading this double life, first 
in the water, then on the land, frogs and toads are called 
amphibious animals, and you will notice how thoroughly 
they connect the life history of the fishes with the land 
'animals. They start life with gills and a tail, both of 



216 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

which they lose, and gain in their places a full set of legs, 
new lungs, and a third chamber in the heart. 

18. These interesting amphibians are the last animals 
we shall study about that breathe air mixed with water; 
consequently, we are done with gills, as well as with two- 
celled hearts. We shall still meet with animals that live 
in the water, as seals and whales, but they are obliged to 
come to the surface for their supply of air. 



TURTLES. 217 



XXXIV. 
TURTLES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, REPTILIA. 

1. An Animal that lives in a Box. — What a strange 
idea, that an animal should live inside of its own skele- 
ton, as in a box ! But that is just what the turtle does, 
and you may prove the singular statement by examining 
the skeleton shown in Fig. 141, or, what is still better, the 
inside of an actual turtle-shell. 

2. Shell formed of the Backbone and Ribs. — Here you 
will find that the upper arch of the shell is made of the 
flattened vertebrae and the broad ribs, firmly united by 
notched edges, and held in place by the small pieces of 
bone near the bottom. There is also a flat bone under- 
neath the body which is not shown in the picture, but 
which completes the box in which the turtle lives. Open- 
ings are left at the front and back through which the 
animal pokes out its head and tail, and its legs, and when 
it Avishes to, it can draw these parts of the body into the 
box and shut itself away from the outside world. The 
shelly plates covering the bone are merely portions of the 
turtle's skin, hardened into horn or shell. 

3. Box -tortoise. — The box -tortoise (Fig. 142) is even 
more thoroughly protected than ordinary turtles. It has 
joints at the bottom of the shell, so that it can draw up 
the under parts tightly all around the edge of the box, 

10 



218 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AKD ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 141. — Skeleton of the Tortoise (Plastron removed). 



and when it is thus closed no part of the animal can be 
reached from the outside. 

4. How Turtles Breathe. — You will readily see that the 
neck and tail are the only movable parts of the spinal 
column ; also, that the ribs, fastened closely together side 
by side, cannot be used in breathing. On account of this 
arrangement, turtles are obliged to swallow their air in 

the same manner 
as frogs do, but 
from a different 
cause. Frogs have 
no ribs by which 
the chest is en- 
larged ; and al- 
though the turtles 
have ribs, they 




TURTLES. 



210 



cannot use them, because they are immovably fastened to 
form the shell. 

5. Turtles do not Shed their Shells. — Some persons have 
an idea that turtles shed their shells as crabs do. But since 
we know that the shell is composed of the backbone and 
the flattened ribs, we may be quite certain that the turtles 
do not lose these important parts of their body. Turtles 
have no teeth, but their horny jaws form a kind of beak 
which serves very well as a substitute. 

6. The Circulation of Cold-blooded Animals. — The heart 
of the turtle contains three cavities, two auricles and a 
ventricle. This formation of the heart 

gives to all reptiles a peculiar circula- 
tion which characterizes them as " cold- 
blooded animals," and which is of so 
much interest in this connection that 
we will try to understand it at once. 

7. After the blood is purified in the 
lungs, it enters the left auricle (Fig. 
143, b), while the impure blood from the 
body enters the right auricle (a). The 
pure blood from the left auricle, and 
the impure blood from the right au- 
ricle, are then both poured into the 
ventricle (c), and this mixed blood is 
sent all over the system, as well as to 
the lungs. This imperfect plan of cir- 
culation causes the low temperature, the 
slow breathing, and the sluggish habits of reptiles. Their 
blood is not well supplied with oxygen, consequently it does 
not leap and bound through their veins as is the case with 
more highly developed animals, tilling them with energy 
and activity. 




Fig. 143. — Circula- 
tion in Reptiles. 

a, right auricle ; b, left 
auricle ; c, ventricle. 



220 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

8. Land -turtles and Water - turtles. — Animals of this 
species which live upon the land generally pass by the 
name of tortoises ; they can swim, when there is occasion 
for it, but their limbs are better fitted for walking. Tur- 
tles and terrapins, on the other hand, live in the water 
or in marshy places, and their feet form good swimming 
paddles. 

9. Supposed to Live to a Great Age. — It is supposed that 
tortoises live to be very old, and dates which are some- 
times found carved upon their shells might serve to 
strengthen this impression ; but we have no way of judg- 
ing of the correctness of these dates, and they may not 
be reliable. Tortoises bearing some peculiar mark are 
found repeatedly in the same locality, from which we 
infer that they are not roving in their habits. 

10. Hibernating. — None of the reptiles are fond of cold 
weather, so they do not venture out during the winter- 
time. These cold-blooded animals have a fashion of 
hiding away under leaves and brushwood, inside of hollow 
logs, and in other snug retreats, where they take a good 
long sleep until pleasant weather comes again, occasion- 
ally creeping out on warm days in a stupid condition. 
This way of passing the winter is called hibernating. 
Those turtles that live in the ocean go into deep water 
during the winter, and land -tortoises work their way 
down into loose, dry earth, where it is quite warm, and 
where they can sleep undisturbed. 

11. Green Turtles. — Green turtles (Fig. 144) are so called 
from the color of their fat, wdiich is used for food, and 
w-hich is considered a great delicacy. They live in trop- 
ical seas, and are mostly caught when they come on shore 
to deposit their eggs, although in performing this duty 
they use the utmost caution. They leave the ocean at 



TURTLES. 



221 




night when the tide is at the highest point, and going a 
short distance from the water's edge, they scoop out a 
hole in the sand about a foot deep. In this nest they lay a 
large number of 
eggs (said to be 
from eighty to 
a hundred) and 
cover them with 
sand, carefully 
smoothing the 
ground to re- 
move any traces 
of their visit be- 
fore returning 
to the sea. All 
this is done very 
quickly, and it 
is almost impos- 
sible to tell where the eggs have been placed. Turtles' 
eggs are round in shape, and are left, without further 
care, to be hatched by the heat of the sun. 

12. After leaving the egg, the tender young turtles, not 
more than an inch long, run immediately to the water. 
In doing so they act prudently, for the sea-birds are fond 
of them, and eat as many as they can catch. Having 
reached the water, they are not yet free from danger, but 
still have many risks to run from fishes and other sea 
creatures that are ready to enjoy the tempting morsels. 

13. Tortoise-shell. — Tortoise-shell which is used for 
ornamental work comes from the hawk's-bill turtle. The 
plates of this shell are thinner at the edges, as you may 
see in the picture (Fig. 145), and overlap each other like 
tiles on a roof. In order to work the tortoise-shell, it is 



Fijr. 144. — Green Turtle. 



222 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

softened by being placed in boiling water, and while in 
this pliable condition it readily takes the desired form, 
which is retained after the shell becomes cold. 




Fie:. 145. — Hawk's-bill Turtle. 



14. When a large piece of tortoise-shell is needed, sev- 
eral plates are joined together. This is done by scraping 
the edges of the plates very thin and laying them over 
each other while they are in a softened state. They are 
then placed under a heavy pressure, and the pieces unite 
so perfectly that the seam can scarcely be discovered. 



SNAKES. 223 



XXXV. 

SNAKES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, REPTILIA. 

1. Snakes generally Disliked. — Lurking as they do in 
solitary nooks and unfrequented places, and stealthily 
gliding away when discovered, it is no wonder that 
snakes have not gained for themselves many friends. 

2. Although we know that most snakes are not danger- 
ous, that they are timid animals, anxious to escape from 
our presence, and, moreover, that their coloring is some- 
times rich and beautiful, yet they continue to be objects 
of general dread and dislike, and few of us can appreciate 
beauty when it is presented in this repulsive form. 

3. Snakes have no Limbs. — These animals are generally 
without limbs of any kind, and we might suppose that in 
this destitute condition, deprived of the ordinary means 
of travelling, snakes would be quite helpless; but, on the 
contrary, they work their way about with great ease, and 
seem to have no difficulty in catching their prey. 

4. A Flexible Skeleton. — The skeleton of a snake when 
carefully prepared, is really a beautiful object. The spi- 
nal column is extremely movable, since it consists of a 
great number of vertebra, each one working on the next 
by a ball-and-socket joint. There are sometimes more 
than four hundred vertebra}, and not only are they joined 
in this flexible manner, but a pair of ribs is also attached 



224 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

to each vertebra (excepting a few near the head and tail) 
by a ball-and-socket joint, and we can scarcely imagine an 
arrangement of bones that would allow more freedom of 
motion than this. 

5. The Ribs raised in Creeping. — There is no breastbone, 
and the lower end of the ribs is attached by short mus- 
cles to the scales on the abdomen. In the process of creep- 
ing the ribs are alternately raised and lowered, so that 




Fig. 146. — Skull of Boa-constrictor. 
a, quadrate bone ; b, b, halves of lower jaw. 

snakes may be said to walk upon the ends of their ribs. 
This movement of the ribs causes the quivering motion 
throughout all parts of the body, which you have perhaps 
noticed in watching snakes glide noiselessly along, appar- 
ently making no effort. 

6. How can a Snake open its Mouth so wide. — Snakes, we 
know, perform wonderful feats in the way of swallowing, 
often taking whole animals of greater diameter than their 
own bodies. We may be interested in noticing here that 
they are enabled to do so by the loose manner in which 
the skull is put together, the two halves of the lower jaw 



SNAKES. 



225 



being united in front only by elastic ligaments. In addition 
to this arrangement, the lower jaw is not joined directly 
to the skull, but is attached to it by means of a "quadrate 
bone " between them (Fig. 146, «), which is loosely hung, 
and which allows the mouth to stretch open very wide. 

7. The Teeth. — The short teeth are pointed backward, 
and they serve merely to seize and hold the prey. They 
are not placed in sockets, and therefore are not service- 
able for chewing; neither are they needed for this pur- 
pose, since the snake swallows its food whole. 

8. The Poison - fangs. — In most venomous snakes the 
"poison-fangs" (Fig. 147,/) take the place of other teeth 
in the upper jaw. These 
poison-fangs are a pair of 
large teeth perforated by 
a tube from the poison- 
gland (g). Ordinarily, 
when not in use, these 
fangs are laid back and 
hidden by a fold of the 
gum, but when the snake 
is about to strike its prey 
the fangs spring forward, and the pressure of the muscle 
(m) upon the poison-gland forces the poison down the 
tube and through the fang ready to flow into the wound. 

9. Snakes coil their Bodies before Springing. — Before 
striking with their fangs, snakes generally wind their 
bodies into a coil, from which they bound like a loosened 
spring, by straightening themselves out and resting upon 
the tail. 

10. The Tongue. — The manner in which snakes stick 
out their slender, forked tongues looks rather threatening 
sometimes, but the tongue is perfectly harmless, and need 

10* 




Fig. 147. — Poison Apparatus of the 

Rattlesnake. 

g, poison-gland; /, fang; m, muscle of 

jaw. 



226 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

cause no terror. It is used only as a delicate feeler with 
which the snake seems to examine objects in passing, fre- 
quently drawing it in to moisten it. 

11. The Heart shows an incomplete Partition. — The heart 
of snakes, like that of turtles, has but three cavities, two 
auricles and one ventricle, still it is of special interest to 
naturalists on account of an incomplete partition which 
partly divides the ventricle, and which seems to indicate 
the probability that after a time we may find animals 
with perfect four -celled hearts. Let us keep a bright 
lookout, and perhaps we may soon reach this point in 
our studies. 

12. Shedding the Skin. — The horny scales which form 
the outside coating of snakes are again covered with a 
thin, delicate skin which is east off at certain periods, 
and a new skin, already formed underneath, takes its 
place. Before shedding its skin, the animal is quite in- 
active for a time, and the skin loosens from the body 
and breaks around the mouth. As the snake then creeps 
through some crevice or close brushwood the skin is 
drawn off inside out, much in the same way that we 
sometimes draw a glove from the finger. 

13. The Staring Eyes. — The fixed, stony stare which is 
so unpleasant a feature of snakes is due to the fact that 
they have no eyelids. Many thrilling stories are told of 
snakes having charmed birds and other small animals, but 
as the stories do not seem to be w T ell authenticated, there 
is little reason to suppose that snakes possess any such 
power. The birds may, in these cases, have been over- 
come by a sense of fear, for the snakes are their most 
deadly foes. 

14. The Rattlesnake. — None of our snakes are more 
dreaded than the rattlesnake, whose bite is exceedingly 



SNAKES. 



227 



poisonous. This snake generally gives warning, however, 
before striking its prey, by shaking a peculiar rattle at 
the end of its tail. The rattle is composed of a number of 




horny, button-like rings which fit loosely into one another 
and make a rustling noise when shaken rapidly. It is 
believed that one new rattle is gained with each shed- 
ding of the skin, but as those at the end sometimes fall 



228 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

off, the age of the snake cannot be told with any de- 
gree of certainty by the number of rattles. Young rat- 
tlesnakes are hatched in broods of eight or ten early in 
the summer, and keep together until they are pretty well 
grown. In times of danger they are said to run into the 
mouth of their mother for protection, the same as other 
young snakes do. 

15. Boas. — The tropical swamps of South America form 
a congenial home for serpents, and here are found the 
great boas, which are the largest of living snakes, some- 
times exceeding twenty feet in length. The bite of the 
boa is not poisonous, but these animals are dreaded on ac- 
count of their great muscular power. They coil them- 
selves tightly around their victims, and in this way de- 
stroy life in a few minutes, even breaking the bones. 

16. Manner of Attacking their Victims. — Boas have cu- 
rious hooks or claws near the tail which are in reality the 
traces of hind limbs. By these hooks they hang suspend- 
ed from the branches of trees, aided also by twining the 
powerful tail around the branches. Waiting in this favor- 
able position near a stream until some unfortunate ani- 
mal comes to drink, they coil themselves with wonderful 
rapidity around their prey and crush it into a shapeless 
mass, fit to be swallowed. After a full repast they usu- 
ally lie in a stupor for some time before waking up to 
need more food. While in this partially unconscious con- 
dition the boas themselves are subject to many perils from 
their enemies, who well know the effect upon these greedy 
creatures of over-indulgence of the appetite. 

17. The Cobra. — The cobra of India is an exceedingly 
venomous snake. It is a small snake, only three or four 
feet long, with a curious arrangement by which the skin 
of the neck may be made to cover the head like a hood, 



SNAKES. 



229 



when this dreaded creature is irritated. On this account 
it is sometimes called the hooded snake, and it is the one 
usually carried about by snake-charmers. The cobra is 
very sluggish in its habits, and it has an unpleasant fancy 




Fig. 149. — Cobra de Capello. 



for entering dwelling-houses, which, in this hot country, 
are infested by many unwelcome visitors. Every year in 
India several thousand people die from the bite of the 
cobra, and no cure has yet been discovered for the deadly 
poison, although the British Government has offered a 
tempting reward for such a cure. 



230 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND OX THE LAND. 



XXXVI. 
LIZARDS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA CLASS, REPTILIA. 

1. Accomplished Climbers. — The active lizards with long, 
slender tails differ from snakes principally in having four 
well -developed limbs, each ending in five toes; and these 
they use very nimbly in running over rocks and along 
fence-rails. The position of their own bodies seems to 
make little difference to the accomplished climbers, and 
they have no difficulty in running upon smooth under-sur- 
faces with their backs downward. 

2. The Eyes are protected by Lids. — These bright - eyed 
little creatures have two eyelids which they draw over 
the eye in winking, and as they have none of that stony 
expression so disagreeable in the snake, we do not mind 
their gazing at us. In fact, it is quite entertaining to 
gaze at them in return and see how rapidly they dart out 
their slender, forked tongues to catch the insects which 
form their chief food. 

3. Lizards' Tails are very Brittle.— One odd thing about 
lizards is that their tails are so brittle, snapping off some- 
times very unexpectedly. Such being the case, there is 
no security in holding a lizard by its tail, for the cunning 
little creature may run off and leave both you and the 
tail you are holding. This is no serious loss to the liz- 
ard, however, for a new tail soon grows in its place. 



LIZARDS. 



231 



4. Places frequented by Lizards. — Some kinds of lizards 
love to frequent sandy banks where they may bask in 
the sunshine, while others conceal themselves in damp 
places under stones and rotten logs. Fortunately for 
the shy and timid lizards, their metallic colors often re- 
semble the vegetation or the soil on which they live, and 
they can thus easily keep out of sight. 







■ »>/ "¥ A :: -' V, V 

Fig. 150. — Lizard. 



5. Advantages gained by Mimicry.— With regard to this 
similarity of coloring, or mimicry, so often adopted by 
animals, it is important we should understand that it is 
a protection which these animals have gained or culti- 
vated for themselves — unconsciously, of course, and en- 
tirely without effort on their part, but as a natural result 
of the fact that animals which are so protected stand a 
better chance for life. Those animals of any kind which 



232 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



are inconspicuous among their ordinary surroundings are 
the ones most likely to escape their enemies, and at the 
same time they are the ones to grow strong and healthy 
from having plenty to eat, since it is easier for them to 
pursue their prey without being seen. This advantage 
once gained is held on to, and, having proved useful to 
the parents, is handed down to their offspring, thus in- 
creasing little by little, and producing at last very curious 
and interesting results. 

6. The Chameleon. — Many lizards have the singular 
power of changing their color, which gives them anoth- 
er advantage in 
concealing them- 
selves. The cha- 
meleon, especial- 
ly, is celebrated 
for its sudden 
changes of color 
(Fig. 151). It 
lives only in the 
warm parts of the 
Old World. It 
is extremely dull 
and sluggish, showing no spirit for anything but catching 
insects,- and at this favorite sport it is quick enough. 
Sometimes it remains for hours in one position, making 
no movements except as some insect goes buzzing past, 
when the sticky tongue is instantly darted out to catch 
it. This tongue, so destructive to insect life, is covered 
with sticky saliva, and looks as if it were swollen at the 
end. It is fastened at the front of the lower jaw, and is 
usually coiled up in the mouth, but when thrown out it 
may be extended for a length of six inches. 




mV 



151. — The Chameleon. 






LIZARDS. 



233 



7. As chameleons pass their time in the trees, they need 
to hold on to the branches, and for this purpose their toes 
are arranged in two groups, like a parrot's, three toes on 
one side of the foot, and two on the other. This arrange- 
ment enables them to grasp the twigs with their toes, and 
at the same time they twist their tails around the branch, 
as you see in the picture. Any part of an animal which 
is fitted to seizing or grasping objects in this way is said 
to be "prehensile." Thus, we speak of the prehensile tail 
of the chameleon. With this definition, what do you think 
we might now say of the tail of the boa ? 





Fifij. 152.— The Iguana. 



8. The Iguana. — The iguana of tropical America is a 
very large lizard, nearly five feet long, with a row of bris- 
tling points standing upright on the middle of the back 
and tail. The long, awkward legs end in sharp claws, which 
assist in climbing trees, and, clumsy as this creature looks to 
be, it runs about among the branches with great activity. 

9. The Flying Dragon. — Another^ curious lizard, much 
more attractive than the iguana, is the flying dragon of 



234 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fi"\ 153. — The Horned Toad. 



the East Indies. It has a broad, wing-like fold of skin on 
each side of the body, supported by two ribs which stand 
out straight from the spinal column. The dragon is up- 
held by this skin as it takes flying leaps from one tree to 
another, but it has no power of striking the air as a bird 
does with its wings. 

10. The Horned Toad. — The horned toad, so characteris- 
tic of our Western plains, is in reality a lizard. Its young 
ones do not pass through the curious changes which all 
young toads pass through; it has a real, honest tail, and 
it runs like a lizard instead of hopping as toads do. Per- 
sons visiting the West often bring home these rough- 
skinned horned toads for pets, and we hear of their living 
for months without food ; but during this time they may 
perhaps have snapped up a goodly supply of flies when 
no one was looking. 



CROCODILES. 23; 



XXXVII. 
CROCODILES. 

SUB-KDsGDOM, VER.TEBRATA t CLASS, REPTILIA. 

1. Crocodiles in their Native Homes. — To see crocodiles 
in perfection we should visit the rivers of tropical Asia 
and Africa. Here these huge bronze-green reptiles some- 
times reach the length of thirty feet, and being strong and 
ferocious, they are really dangerous animals. 

2. It is difficult for us to understand how these repulsive 
creatures ever came to be regarded with favor by the na- 
tives, who must often have suffered from their attacks, 
but, strange as it may appear, they were considered sacred 
by the ancient Egyptians, and were trained by them to 
take part in their religious processions. 

3. The Ferocious Mouth. — The mouth of the crocodile 
looks particularly ferocious, as there are no lips to cover 
the grinning, pointed teeth, which are always visible. 
These are real, strong, biting teeth, too, and they are 
firmly set in pits in the jaw, and below the root of each 
tooth there is a little new tooth started, ready to grow up 
and take the place of the old one if it should fall out. 
In this way vacancies are soon filled, and no matter how 
old a crocodile may be, its mouth is always supplied with 
a full set of teeth. As if to add to this hideous effect, 
the fourth tooth in the lower jaw is longer than its neigh- 
bors, and when the mouth is closed it extends up over the 
upper jaw. 



236 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




154. — Crocodile-hunting. 



4. The Tough Hide. — The crocodile's hide is exceeding- 
ly tough, composed of plates of bone covered with horny 
scales. These plates are raised into ridges on the back 
and tail, where they form various patterns. 

5. How Crocodiles capture their Prey.— Their powerful 
tails, besides being useful in swimming, are very conven- 
ient for striking down and sweeping into the water many 
of the large animals upon which they feed. Having thus 
secured their prey, they hold it under water until it is 
drowned, being careful, however, to raise their own snouts 



CROCODILES. 



237 



above the surface once in a while for air. The mouth of 
the crocodile is necessarily open during this time, but by 
a peculiar arrangement of valves, shown in Fig. 155, the 
throat and nostrils may be instantly closed, so that water 
cannot run down the throat ; and the process is perfectly 
safe for the crocodile, although disastrous to its victims. 
The wily crocodile then drags the lifeless body ashore, 
often hiding it until it is partly decayed before eating it. 
6. Their Difficulty in Turning. — It is generally known 
that crocodiles have great difficulty in turning quickly, 
and when persons are pursued by them they very fre- 
quently profit by this knowledge and make their escape 
by rapidly changing their course. The want of flexi- 
bility noticed in such cases is caused by the small ribs 
which are attached to the vertebrae of the neck, and 
which interfere with its free movements. 




Fig. 155. — Mouth of the Crocodile. 

rf, tongue; e, glands; /, inferior, and a, superior, valves separating the cavity of 
the liioiuh from tiie throat, h. 



23S ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

7. The Heart and the Circulation of the Blood. — We 
must not fail to examine the heart of the crocodile, for 

we shall find in it a decided step in advance of the Other 
reptiles. The change which we had reason to expect has 
at last taken place. You will remember that we noticed 
an incomplete partition in the ventricle o( the snake, but 







Fiir. 156.— Alligator. 



here there is a perfect partition making two separate ven- 
tricles, and the heart is thus divided into four distinct cells. 
The pure blood is consequently kept separate from the 
impure blood as long as it remains in the heart. 

8. The advantage gained by this arrangement is soon 
lost, however, for the main arteries carrying both the pure 
and the impure blood unite soon after leaving the heart, 



CROCODILES. 



239 



and the two kinds of blood flow together in one stream. 
A mixed blood is therefore sent through the body of the 
crocodile, the same as in other cold-blooded animals. Not- 
withstanding this apparent failure, a perfect circulation, by 
which the system is supplied only with pure blood, is near- 
ly reached, as we shall find when we come to treat of birds. 

9. Alligators. — Alligators are very much like croco- 
diles, except that they are smaller, that their feet are not 
so completely webbed, and that they are found only in 
America. They are very numerous in the rivers and 
swamps of our Southern States, where they may be seen 
swimming with the snout just above water, or sunning 
themselves on the banks ; and they are a never-ending 
source of entertainment to visitors and sportsmen in 
these popular winter resorts. These animals are most 
active during the night, at which times they make a 
loud, bellowing noise. In cold weather they bury them- 
selves in the mud and become perfectly torpid, but the 
warm sunshine soon revives them. 

10. The Eggs of Alligators. — Alligators lay a large num- 
ber of eggs, which 

are deposited on the 
river-banks in a mass 
of vegetable matter 
heaped up for the 
purpose, and the de- 
caying of this mass 
produces the heat 
necessary for hatch- 
ing the eggs. The 
mother keeps watch 
over the spot, and 
tears open the pile 




Fig. 157. — Just Hatched. 



240 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

to liberate the young when she hears their cries. She 
shows some affection for them, and does what she can to 
protect them from the old males, who will eat them if 
they have a chance to do so. 

11. The Reptiles of Ancient Times. — All kinds of rep- 
tiles are most numerous in w r arm countries, and they have 
many points of resemblance to birds. There was a time, 
very long ago, when reptiles of all sizes must have been 
abundant on our earth. Some were small, like the liz- 
ards of the present day, while others were of gigantic 
size, measuring fifty or sixty feet in length. We know of 




158. — Footprints of Labykinthodon. 



CROCODILES. 241 

these odd reptiles only by the hints and sketches of their 
lives which are traced in a most convincing manner upon 
the rocks in the form of fossil remains, and many of them 
are exceedingly interesting because they are so different 
from any animals now living. 

1 2. Some of these old-fashioned creatures had long necks, 
and wings which in all probability were used by them for 
mounting into the air, yet at the same time the upper-jaw 
contained many teeth set in distinct sockets like those of 
a crocodile, and, upon the whole, the skeleton would sug- 
gest a bird quite as much as a lizard. The oldest of these 
fossils yet discovered which naturalists can place confi- 
dently with birds is the archcvopteryx, and a strange-look- 
ing bird this one must have been. It had a long, jointed 
tail like a lizard's tail, with one pair of quill feathers stand- 
ing out from each vertebra. 

13. Then there were other forms entirely different from 
these birdlike reptiles — huge beasts having very long 
hind-legs, upon which they probably hopped or walked 
nearly erect, while their short front legs could scarcely 
have touched the ground. Others, again, had strong tails 
and paddle-feet, suggesting at once the thought that they 
must have been good swimmers. 

14. The rocks in the Connecticut Valley are marked 
with a great variety of birdlike tracks, some of them very 
large, which are now believed to be fossil footprints of 
curious reptiles like some of those we have been speak- 
ing of. 

15. In Fig. 158 are shown fossil footprints of the laby- 
rinthodon, an animal which was first known to science 
only by its footprints; and these impressions bear so 
strong a resemblance to the human hand that the animal 
has been called the "hand-beast." 

11 



242 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON TIIE LAND. 

16. In looking at these footprints, we can form no idea 
of the vast number of years which must have passed since 
these old-time creatures chanced to step on this particular 
spot of mud, leaving impressions to be treasured up long 
after their race had died out, and the earth had become 
peopled by much more attractive beings. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 243 



XXXVIII. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, AVES. 

1. The Beautiful Birds. — There is something very win- 
ning about birds, and perhaps we are scarcely conscious 
of how much these light-hearted creatures do to gladden 
our lives. Joyous and beautiful, they charm us with their 
graceful movements, no matter whether we see them soar- 
ing through the heavens, flitting about among the tree- 
tops, or chirping contentedly over their simple every-day 
duties. Then their sweet and varied song is another 
source of delight, to which few persons are insensible. 

2. What makes Birds so Light ? — Most birds, we know, 
can leave the earth and mount up into the air, passing 
the greater part of their lives in regions that other ani- 
mals are entirely unable to reach. We may safely con- 
clude that their bodies are constructed differently from 
other animals or they could not thus enjoy so unusual an 
advantage. Upon looking closely into the matter we shall 
discover that birds are made as light in every way as 
possible. Their bones are hollow, the quills of their 
feathers are hollow, and both of these are filled with air ; 
moreover, the feathers themselves are made up of delicate 
filaments which cling to one another and hold a great 
deal of air in their meshes. 

3. The drawing of the vulture in Fig. 160 will give us 



2-ti ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

a good idea of how small 
the skeleton of a bird is, 
compared with the whole 
bulk of the body, and 
when we remember that 
many of these bones are 
filled with air instead of 
marrow, as they were when 
the bird was very young, 
we begin to understand 
why birds are so light in 
weight. There is a whole 
series of air-sacs connect- 
ed with the lungs, and 
extending through other 
parts of the body, as well 
as through the bones, 
which help to reduce the 
weight, and, just as might 
be expected, it is those 
birds which fly most, and 
therefore need to be very 
light, that are best sup- 
plied with these air- 
sacs. 



S^ssfi 





Fi". 159.— "The North- wind 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 



245 



4. The Wing of a Bird.— Still, for all this, the bird could 
not fly without wings. So it is the wing that charms us 
most, and when we ^ee what a simple thing it is, we won- 
der at its power. The framework is formed of a set of 
bones (Fig. 161) very similar to those of our arm and 
hand, but having only 
one perfect finger, 
which corresponds 
to our index -finger. 
Stretched over this 
framework there is 
a thin covering of 
flesh and muscle from 
which grow the quills 
and smaller feathers, 
and these,when spread 
out, make up the broad 
wing. 

5. When opened, the 
upper surface of the 
wing is rounded, and 
the air can readily 
slide from its edges as 
the bird mounts up- 
ward, while, on the 
contrary, the hollowed 
under surface holds 

the air, as in an inverted cup, and enables . the bird to 
press upon the air thus confined. The movement of 
the wing in flying is somewhat like the stroke of an 
oar; the wing cuts the air with its sharp front edge, 
but presses back upon it with its full outstretched 
surface. As this action is repeated again and again, 




Fig. 160. — Skeleton op a Vulture. 
keel of sternum ; 7, clavicle, or wish-bone. 



2-±6 ANIMAL LIFE IN" THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Bones of a Wing. 



tachment of the muscles. 



the bird moves forward with 
an easy, gliding motion. 

6. The Flying Muscles on 
the Breast. — Although flying 
looks to us like easy work, 
we may know there are 
strong muscles required to 
move the wings so rapidly 
and so gracefully. These 
powerful muscles that move 
the wings are situated on 
the breast, and they are fast- 
ened at one end to the large 
breastbone or sternum. Jn 
those birds that fly, the 
breastbone extends straight 
out in front like the keel of 
a ship (Fig. 160, 6) and gives 
a good surface for the at- 
It is these same flying mus- 



cles which make the breasts of birds so full and plump. 

1. The Wish-bone. — The wish-bone (Fig. 160, 1) which 
delights the heart of every child has also an important 
part to play in the act of flying. It is formed of the two 
collar-bones united in front, and its particular office is to 
keep the shoulders apart and prevent the wings from 
sliding towards the breast while the bird makes its down- 
ward strokes. This little wish-bone is another good ex- 
ample of the effect of use or disuse upon certain parts of 
the body. In ostriches and other birds which do not use 
their wings for flying the bone is not needed ; conse- 
quently, it does not grow, but always remains in an un- 
developed condition. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 247 

8. The Arrangement for Perching 1 . — Have you ever won- 
dered how it is that a little bird can sit so securely upon 
its perch all night long and never once tumble off when 
it begins to nod and finally goes fast to sleep ? In Fig. 
162 we can see what a beautiful arrangement there is for 
perching. The thick muscle which bends the bird's toes 
is placed above the knee; the fibres composing this muscle 
unite into a long, white cord, or tendon, which passes down 
in front of the knee (Fig. 162, A), then winds around to 
the back of the heel and goes to the toes. 

9. As the bird settles on the perch and 
bends its knee the weight of the body pulls 
this tendon and involuntarily bends the toes. 
For this reason the toes clasp the perch se- 
curely even when the bird is not thinking 
about it. The weight of the body contin- 
ually pulls on the tendon, and the bird can- 
not help holding fast to the perch. In the Fig. 162. — Lkg 
same way, when a bird is walking it cannot Perching ° 
keep its foot open while its leg is bent. 

This peculiarity you have no doubt noticed in a chicken 
stepping slowly, with one foot daintily uplifted and seem- 
ing to scorn the idea of again touching it to the earth. 

10. The Food of Birds has an Important Bearing upon 
their Structure. — By watching birds we shall discover 
that, while some feed upon insects, other kinds are hunt- 
ing for fruits and seeds, and this question of food has 
an important bearing upon their habits and choice of a 
home, and also upon the structure of their bodies. 

11. Birds which feed on easily digested animal food 
have a simple gizzard with thin walls. On the other 
hand, those birds which feed on hard grains have thick, 
muscular gizzards for grinding their food. The little 




248 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



pebbles which birds swallow are 
necessary to help in this grinding, 
and without them the gizzard 
could not crush the food properly. 

12. The digestive organs of a 
bird, as seen in Fig. 163, may be 
easily studied in the common fowl. 
The long oesophagus (3) is enlarged 
to form a crop (4). Here the food 
is moistened with digestive juices, 
and then passed on to the gizzard 
(7) in small quantities. 

13. A Perfect Four -celled 
Heart. — After noticing the 
gradual modifications in 
the hearts of fishes and 
reptiles, we have now the 
satisfaction of finding in 
birds the first instance of 
a perfect - working four - celled 
heart, which succeeds admira- 
bly in keeping the pure 
blood and the impure 
blood from becom- 
ing mixed. 

14. The right side 
of the heart, as shown 
in the ideal plan in 
Fig. 164, is set apart 
to receive the impure 
blood and no other, 

and to send it to the lungs, while the left side receives 
the pure blood that is returned from the lungs and 




Fig. 163. — Digestive Organs op a Fowl. 



3, oesophagus ; 4, crop ; 7, gizzard. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 



2-W 



pumps it into the arteries, which carry it to all parts of 
the body. 

15. The High Temperature of Birds. — This perfect circu- 
lation is found in all the higher animals, giving them a 
high temperature. Still, the blood of birds is hotter than 
that of other animals, owing partly to 
their perfect circulation, to the abun- 
dant supply of air in their bodies, and 
also to their covering of down and 
feathers, which keeps the heat from es- 
caping. The temperature of birds is 
104° ; that of the human body is 98°. 

16. The Music of Birds. —The ex- 
quisite music of the birds is produced 
by an arrangement of bones and car- 
tilages at the lower end of the wind- 
pipe, or trachea, as it is called. Cur- 
rents of air passing through this part 
of the trachea give a quivering motion 
to the membrane stretched across it, 
and produce all the varied notes so 
pleasing to our ears. 

17. Birds evidently sing sometimes 
for their own pleasure, and then the whole depths of their 
nature seem to be poured into their music; but their song 
is also at times a call to their mates and to their young 
ones. As a rule, male birds are more musical than their 
mates. They are likewise larger and more brilliant. 

18. Their Coloring. — Gayest of all the birds are those 
living in the tropics, while those that inhabit the Arctic 
regions are of dull colors, and some of them change to 
white when winter comes and the ground is covered with 
snow. So birds, too, you see, also resort to mimicry. 

11* 




Fig. 164. — Plan of 
Circulation in 
Birds and Mam- 
mals. 

a, right auricle ; b, left 
auricle; c, c', ventricle. 



250 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

19. Their Plumage. — Birds are the only animals that are 
clothed with feathers, and much of their beauty is due to 
the colors and markings of this soft, fluffy covering as 
well as to its charming metallic lustre. 

20. Growth of the Feathers. — These beautiful feathers 
grow from little sacs in the skin, and are made of a horny 
substance, much the same as the scales of reptiles. But, 
unlike these scales, the feathers have split up, during 
growth, into many narrow strips, which give them their 
peculiar softness. Upon the legs and feet of most birds 
you may see scales which have not split up thus into 
feathers. 

21. Feathers examined. — You may also notice how differ- 
ent the soft, downy feathers, overlapping one another so as 
to form a warm covering for the body, are from the large 
quill-feathers of the tail and wings. These last are very 
useful in flying, since the tail feathers form a kind of 
fan which helps the bird to steer its course, and the wing 
feathers greatly increase the size of the wing without add- 
ing much to its weight. 

22. Upon examining any common feather you may see 
on each side of the quill small branches, or " barbs," and 
you must notice how completely these unite with each 
other to form the broad "vane" (c, Fig. 165). On both 
edores of the barbs there is a row of still smaller " bar- 
bules," ending in hooks, which interlock with the next 
row and are thus held firmly together. When these barbs 
are pulled apart we can see the little barbules separating, 
and if they are placed together again side by side they 
will unite as before. 

23. Now, we cannot make the lower barbs on the quill 
unite in this way, neither can we the down feathers which 
lie next to the skin of the bird, because their barbules have 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 



251 



no hooks on them. This is also the case with the feathers 
of the ostrich and other birds of its kind — the barbs never 
unite with each other, and hence 
the plumes are soft and downy. 

24. Preening. — The neck of birds 
is always long enough to allow the 
beak to reach an oil-gland which 
is situated at the end of the tail, 
and which supplies the oil for 
"preening" the feathers. The tail 
can also be raised part way to meet 
the beak, and the bird, having thus 
obtained a supply of oil from the 
gland, passes its feathers one after 
another through its bill in such 
a way as to distribute the oil 
through the pi umage. This process 
of preening smooths the feathers 
so that the bird may glide easily 
through the air or water, as the 
case may be, and it also serves to 
make the plumage water-proof. 

25. The Migration of Birds.— But 
few birds remain constantly in the 
places where they are hatched. 
Migratory birds unite in flocks and 
take long journeys at certain sea- 
sons, leaving cold countries at the 
approach of winter and returning 
in the spring, thus making two 
journeys each year. It is an interesting fact that they 
always make their nests and raise their young broods in 
the coldest countries which they visit. 




Fig. 165. — Parts of 
Feathkr. 

a, qnill ; b, shrift ; c, vai 
d, down. 



252 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

26. In these migrations all the birds of one species seem 
filled with an impulse to move in one direction in search 
of food or other favorable conditions. Each kind has its 
time for starting, and seldom varies from it. They some- 
times return the following season to the exact spot they 
started from, having in the mean time travelled hundreds 
of miles. The sea does not stop them, but they often 
take long flights over its surface, as, for instance, in cross- 
ing the Mediterranean Sea from Europe to Africa, or in 
ofoins: from our own coast to the Bahama Islands and to 
South America. 

27. Birds Useful in destroying Insects. — Many of the 
smaller birds, which in former times were killed or fright- 
ened off because they robbed our gardens and orchards, 
are now considered useful in destroying insects, and gar- 
deners are doing what they can to invite their return. 
That birds eat fruit is very true, and that they select the 
largest and finest is also true ; nevertheless, the injury 
done by insects is far more serious in its character. 



253 



XXXIX. 
BIRDS' EGGS AXD NESTS. 

1. The Egg. — What a mystery is connected with the 
Qggl A little world of itself ! Shut apart from the out- 
side world, it seems a lifeless thing, yet within that little 
sphere mighty forces are at work, which, under favorable 
circumstances, will produce a perfect animal, gifted with 
life, and soon showing the habits and peculiarities of its 
ancestors. 

2. The Study of the Egg 1 . — On opening an egg we see 
merely the " white," in the middle of which floats the 
"yolk," with the whitish "germ cell " clinging to it. This 
germ cell occupies but little space, yet it is the important 
part of the egg — the part for which all the rest of the egg- 
was made, because it is just at this spot that the young- 
bird begins to grow. We cannot see without a microscope 
the twisted cords of albumen at both ends of the egg which 
hold the yolk pretty nearly in the centre, but we can see 
them represented in Fig. 166. Those twisted cords allow 
the yolk to roll over from one side to another when the 
egg is turned, and so the germ cell, which is at the lightest 
part of the yolk, keeps always uppermost, as in the pict- 
ure. Here we have a beautiful contrivance by which the 
germ cell is sure to be nearest to the body of the bird as 
she sits upon her eggs, no matter how often the eggs are 
turned over. 



254 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

3. Why a Bird sits upon her Eggs. — Of course, that part 
of the egg nearest the bird gets the most heat from her 
warm little body and her soft, downy feathers, and a cer- 
tain amount of heat is necessary to develop the new life 
within the egg. This we know is the reason that birds 
sit upon their eggs, and that they are so careful not to 
leave the nest long enough for them to become chilled. 




Fig. 1G6. — Section of a Hen's Egg before Incubation. 

a, yolk, showing concentric layers; a', its semi-fluid centre; b, fhner dense part 
of the albumen; b', outer thinuer part; c, twisted cords of albumen; h, the 
white spot, or germ cell. 



4. Growth of the Young Bird. — As we have just said, 
the young bird begins to grow from the germ cell. The 
albuminous white of the egg furnishes the building ma- 
terial for its growth, and the rich oily yolk nourishes the 
newly formed bird as long as it continues in the shell. 
The more there is of this rich yolk stored up in the 
egg, the stronger and better developed will the bird be 
on leaving it, as is clearly shown in the case of those 
birds whose eggs contain a large yolk. The young of 
such birds are able to run about and help themselves as 
soon as they are hatched ; whereas the young of those 



BIRDS' EGGS AND NESTS. 



255 




having small yolks, not being so fully developed, are 
hatched in a blind and naked con- 
dition, and need to be fed and 
brooded over by their parents. 

5. The Supply of Air.— No doubt 
you have often noticed in hard- 
boiled eggs a little hollow place at 
the larger end like the one 
shown at/, in Fig. 166. There 
is a little bubble of air here, 
between the two deli- 
cate tissues lining the 
shell, for the use of the 





Fig. 1 67. — Building the Nesi 



256 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

baby bird, and the shell is also full of small pores through 
which fresh supplies of air can easily pass. 

6. The Bird chips its Way out. — When the tiny creat- 
ure, shut up in the shell, is fitted to live in the great 
world outside, it pierces this hard case and chips its way 
out by the help of a small knob on top of its beak. This 
knob seems to be only a tool to help the bird escape from 
the shell, and as it is of no use afterwards it soon dis- 
appears. 

7. The bird is now fully equipped with bones, muscles, 
bill, claws, and internal organs. These parts have all been 
formed and nourished from the contents of that little egg- 
shell. Moreover, we find the contents of the shell have 
been entirely absorbed, showing that though the egg fur- 
nishes all that is needed for the formation of the young 
animal, there is nothing in it which is unnecessary. 

8. Birds' Nests. — These same birds' eggs, so full of 
wonderful design, are A^ery precious to the heart of the 
mother-bird, and she never seems happier than when hard 
at work getting her nest ready to receive them. The nest 
is also intended for the early home of her little ones, and 
she displays much skill and industry in building it. As a 
general rule, the small birds with delicate feet and slender 
bills are most successful in weaving a fine and elegant 
nest. 

9. All birds of the same species build their nests alike 
from one generation to another, and seldom depart from 
the long-established plan. They not only use the same 
building material, but they select similar locations, so that 
those who are familiar with the habits of birds know 
pretty well in what kind of places to look for any par- 
ticular nests they may be in search of. 

10. Birds' tastes differ widely in the choice of a home, 



birds' eggs and nests. 



257 



and high tree-tops, way- side hedges, low bushes, hollow 
tree-trunks, and grassy pastures all have advantages of 
their own in the estimation of the birds that occupy them. 
Every boy and girl should know the keen pleasure of find- 
ing these charming nests hidden away among the leaves 
and grass. 

11. Building Materials. — Some birds, 
you may have noticed, use nothing for 
building materials but small sticks, dried 
grass, and hair ; some weave pieces of 
string and strips of birch bark in among 
the grass ; others, again, plaster their 
nests with mud to make them strong. 
The great-crested flycatcher has a sin- 
gular fancy for the cast - off skins of 
snakes, and always hunts up one or two 
of these skins to weave into her nest. 
She then lines it with soft brown feath- 
ers of the same general color as the eggs 
that are to lie within it. The tailor- 
bird also makes an odd nest (Fig. 168) 
by sewing together the leaves of trees, 
and in doing so she must use her beak 
and slender claws in the place of a nee- 
dle. In arranging their nests most birds have a thought 
for comfort, and put in some soft lining, using for this 
purpose feathers, fine grass, delicate thistle-down, or the 
yellow woolly covering of young ferns. 

12. Dangers to which the Nests are exposed. — Imagine, 
now, these dainty homes after the tiny eggs have been 
placed within, or a little later, when they are filled to 
overflowing with tender young birds, and you may know 
how attractive they are to hawks and owls and snakes 




Fig. 168. — Nest of 
the Tailor-bird. 



258 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

and other animals that are prowling about, seeking what 
they may devour. In fact, these little tidbits are so eager- 
ly sought both day and night as to make the parent 
birds very anxious for the safety of their little ones, and 




Fig. 169. — Nest of the Weaver-bird. 



in consequence of the dangers to which they are ex- 
posed most birds conceal their nests as much as possi- 
ble from sight. In the tropics they often hang them 
on the outer twigs of trees, away from the reach of mon- 
keys and reptiles. The illustration on this page shows 



birds' eggs and nests. 259 

the nest of the African weaver-bird, curiously fashioned, 
and hanging from the branch of a tree. 

13. The Necessity for Screening a Bright-colored Bird. — 
It has been noticed that those female birds which have 
bright and conspicuous colors, like their mates, build in 
hollow trees, or else make covered nests, that they may 
not be so easily seen while sitting upon them. On the 
other hand, when the female is of a dull color, and there 
is not the same need of concealment, the nest is made 
open. It will at once be evident that a bird which har- 
monizes in color with the general hue of her nest might 
sit upon it unnoticed, whereas a bright - colored bird in 
such an exposed position woul'd attract the attention of 
her enemies, and thus inform them where her treasures 
are stored. 

14. Eggs concealed by their Coloring and Markings. — 
This fascinating subject of the coloring of birds -may be 
extended to the eggs as well, and you will find it a pleas- 
ing study to notice the various tints by which birds' eggs 
are made to blend with their surroundings. The curious 
blotches and specks and the indescribable lines and mark- 
ings with which many eggs are ornamented serve as an 
additional concealment. Perhaps you will discover that 
eggs which are placed in open nests are generally shielded 
from observation in this way, while those eggs that are 
laid in holes and in concealed places are often purely 
white. 



260 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XL. 
SWIMMING-BIRDS (JVatatomes). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, AVES. 

1. Birds divided into Seven Groups. — Nowhere in the 
study of Natural History do we find animals more beau- 
tifully fitted to the kind of life they lead than the birds 
are. With regard to their habits and manner of living, 
they seem naturally to divide themselves into the follow- 
ing seven groups : the swimmers, the leaders, the runners, 




Fig. 170.— Wild Ducks. 



SWIMMING-BIRDS. 261 

the scratchers, the climbers, the perchers, and the birds of 
prey. Perhaps we cannot do better than accept the hints 
of nature, so we will study them in this order. The 
beaks and feet, as a general thing, indicate the habits of 
the bird, and show to what group it belongs. 

2. Ducks and Geese: Examples of Swimming - birds. — 
Ducks and geese present themselves at once to our minds 
as familiar examples of swimming-birds, and we can see 
how exactly their boat-shaped bodies and long necks are 
suited to living on the water. Then they are web-footed 




Fig. 171. — Foot of a Gannkt. 

(that is, they have a skin between the toes, as shown in 
Fig. 171), which enables them to swim easily, and their 
short legs are placed far back on the body. This posi- 
tion suits very well for paddling in the water, but it makes 
their gait upon land extremely awkward — so much so that 
the waddling of the duck has become proverbial. 

3. Protection against Changes of Temperature. — First 
diving into the water, then flying up into the air, these 
swimming-birds are necessarily exposed to great changes 
of temperature, and as a protection against such sudden 
changes their bodies are covered with a thicker and closer 
plumage than other birds have ; the coat of down next 
to the skin is also very thick. There is, moreover, an un- 
usually large supply of oil from the oil-gland, which keeps 



262 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the plumage from getting wet, and gives the feathers that 
beautiful gloss so noticeable in the duck. 

4. The Bills form a good Strainer. — These birds have an 
odd way of gobbling up their food, often taking in mud 
and water at the same time, but their broad, flat bills are 
furnished with rough plates around the edge, which form 
a very good strainer. Being richly supplied with nerves, 
this strainer is able, in some way, to select the particles 
of food and keep them in the mouth while the mud is al- 
lowed to run out. 

5. The Swans. — More graceful than the ducks and geese 
are the swans, with their long necks gently curved and 
their wings partly lifted when swimming, as if to catch 
the wind. When swans are attacked, they defend them- 
selves with spirit, making a loud hissing sound and strik- 
ing violently with their wings. 

6. How Flocks of these Birds may be Recognized. — Wild 
ducks, geese, and swans are excellent flyers as well as 
swimmers, and they can be recognized at a distance by 
their wedge-shaped flocks. In reality, these birds fly in 
two lines, which come together in front and gradually sep- 
arate towards the last of the flock, so that the general ap- 
pearance of the company has the shape of a wedge. The 
leader flies at the point where the two lines meet, and 
when he becomes w^eary, he leaves his post to his next 
neighbor, and falls back to the last of one of the two lines ; 
but meanwhile, during this change of leaders, the flock 
keeps in perfect order. Upon these migrations the birds 
fly thousands of miles, and build their nests in summer 
among the lakes and marshes of cold northern countries. 

7. Flamingoes and their Nests. — A company of flamin- 
goes like those in Fig. 172, with their bright scarlet bodies, 
their long slender legs, and their curved bills, is certainly 



SWIMMIXG-BIRDS. 



263 



very handsome; but how odd they must look when sitting 
on their high, conical nests, which are made of mud heap- 
ed up into slender mounds two or three feet high, and 
shaped somewhat like an old-fashioned churn — small at the 
top, and increasing in 
size towards the bot- 
tom. These mounds 
are scooped out at the 
top, just enough to 
hold the eggs, and the 
bird sits upon the col- 
umn with its legs dou- 
bled under it, in the 
same way as other birds 
sit upon their nests. 

8. Sea-birds. — Less 
familiar than some of 
these land -birds, but 
not less interesting, is 
the whole host of sea- 
birds, whose habits 
are necessarily very 
different. Many of 
these sea - birds pass 
their lives entirely 
upon the ocean, and Fi& i? 2.— Flamingoes. 

sleep at night with 

their heads tucked under their wings as they float upon 
the waves. They feed upon fishes and other small ani- 
mals, which they snatch while skimming over the water. 
They go on shore only to raise their young ones, and for 
this purpose they often select lonely islands and steep, 
bald cliffs. Here thousands of them raise their young 




26-i ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

upon the bare rocks, and mingle their screams with the 
roar of the waves below. 

9. In a certain sense, perhaps, these birds are destitute 
of the charms which we usually expect to find in birds. 
They seldom take any pains with their nests, and their 




Fie. 173. — A Few Sea-birds. 



note is only a shrill cry; but these defects are easily over- 
looked after once seeing them upon the lonely ocean and 
learning something of the wild, free lives they lead. 

10. Gulls. — First of all, there are the gulls, so abundant 
all over the world. With their strong wings they fly rap- 



SWIMMING-BIRDS. 



265 




Fix. 174. — Sea-gcll. 



idly and gracefully over the sea, and when their keen eyes 

discover a tempting morsel in the water beneath, they 

make a sudden . ^ 

dive to procure 

it. These birds 

meet in large 

numbers to 

breed on the 

rocks, or on the 

sand-bars at the 

mouths of rivers 

and bays. Their 

shrill cry seems 

to be half a 

laugh and half 

a scream,' and 

sounds very weird and melancholy when it is heard at 

night or during a raging storm. The graceful, elegant 

gulls generally keep 
quite near the shore, 
and are not found very 
far out at sea. 

11. The Stormy Pet- 
rel. — The stormy pet- 
rel, on the other hand, 
is met at great dis- 
tances from the land. 
Although the smallest 
of web - footed birds, 
and not larger than a 
swallow, it is very 

brave, and flies over the roughest sea with perfect confi- 
dence, rising with the billows and sinking with the fall- 
12 




Fig. 175. — Stormy Petrel. 



2GG ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 176. — The Albatross. 



ing waves as if delighting in the storm. Watching the 
petrels is one of the delights of a sea-voyage. To all 
appearances, the same little flock hovers over the wake 
of the vessel from day to day, and looks as if it might 
intend to cross the ocean in company with this particular 
vessel. These tinv little black-and-white birds are usu- 



SWIMMING-BIRDS. 



267 



ally called "Mother Carey's Chickens," and they live con- 
stantly on the water. Once in a while they make a dive 
under the waves or float for a moment upon the surface, 
and then resume their onward flight with as much spirit 
as before. They never seem to grow weary, neither do 
they seem to rest. 

12. The Albatross. — The largest of the swimmers is the 
albatross, a powerful bird with white body and black 
wings. It also seems to delight in a fierce gale, and 
skims over the surface of the ocean without touching it. 
It is, nevertheless, an expert swimmer when it deigns to 
light upon the water. An albatross has been known to 
follow the course of a ship in mid-ocean for many weeks. 

13. The Eider-duck. — The eider-duck, too, is a real sea- 
bird, but it does not fly well, and its habits are peculiar 
in many ways. Eider-ducks spend the winter in large 
flocks on the Arc- 
tic seas, but when 

spring comes they 

select their mates, , /- *=-. J 

and the happy pairs 
swim off by them- 
selves to the shore. 
The female makes 
a large, loose nest 
of dry grass and 
straw, and lines it 
with a thick layer 
of down which she 
has plucked from 
her own breast. In 

this warm nest she lays from six to ten pale-green eggs, 
and a supply of loose down is generally placed near by 




-S 



Ficr. 177. — The Eir>FR-r>rck\ 



268 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



to cover the eggs with when the hen is off in search 
of food. 

14. The way Eider-down is Obtained. — Eider-down, as 
you may know, is very valuable on account of its light- 
ness and softness. The eggs are also valuable, and bring 
a good price when offered for sale; so it often happens 
that the natives of these cold countries are on the watch 
for the nests about this time, and carry them off as soon 
as they are filled with eggs. This is the way our eider- 
down is obtained. The mother-bird, in her distress, makes 
another nest ; but her down is gone, and she has nothing 
to line it with, so her mate is now obliged to strip the 
down from his breast also. The natives do not disturb 
this second nest which the male has lined, for if they 
should destroy the nests too often there might be no 
eider-ducks to visit their shores by-and-by. Soon after 
the young ducks are hatched they are taken by their 

elders to the sea, where they 
are instructed in the arts of 
swimming and diving, the 
mother going down with a 
little one under each wing. 
15. The Penguins. — Very 
different birds from these 
are the penguins. Their 
short legs are placed right 
g at the end of the body, so 
they can stand only in an 
erect position, and when 
they attempt to walk their 
bodies turn half-way round 
at each step. Then those 
Fig. 178.— Penguin. paddle-wings, hanging down 




SWIMMING-BIRDS. 



!>G9 



at their sides and covered with short scale-like feathers, 
are entirely useless for flying, but they answer very well 
in swimming and in scrambling upon the rocks. 

16. Penguins live only in the Southern Hemisphere, 
while their distant cousins, the auks and guillemots, have 
their home in the North. They spend most of the time in 
the water, and are often found at a great distance from 
land. When they come on shore, and stand upright in 
long lines, exposing their glistening white breasts to the 
sunlight, they are said to look like an array of soldiers. 




Fig. 179. — Pelicans. 



17. The Pelicans. — We must not forget the pelicans, 
too, those awkward, ungainly birds that look almost too 
heavy to fly. But they are not very heavy, after all, for 
their bones contain a great many air-sacs, and their large 
heads are nearly all bill. The curious bag that hangs un- 
derneath is only a tough, flabby skin, which makes a con- 
venient pouch for the pelican to scoop up fish with, and 



270 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

carry them off to the shore to b.e eaten at leisure. Peli- 
cans are numerous on our Florida coasts, but they are 
so shy that you will not find it easy to get a good look at 
them. On reaching one of the narrow strips of sandy isl- 
ands that skirt the shore, you will scarcely have caught a 
glimpse of the pelicans standing on the beach before there 
is a whirring of broad wings and they are gone. You 
may not see them in the air, you may not see them on 
the water, but after a while you will find that somehow 
or other they have reached another sand-bar almost out of 
sight ; and this is the way they will serve you again and 
airain. 



WADIXG-BIRDS. 



271 



XLI. 

WADING -BIRDS (Grallatores). 

SUB-KINGDOM, YERTEBRATA : CLASS, AYES. 

1. The Heron as a Type of Wading-birds.— From the long 
neck and the long, naked legs of the heron we may form 
a pretty good idea of what to expect of all wading-birds, 




Fig. 180. — Haunt ok thk Heron. 



272 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



no matter how much they may differ in size. The long, 
straight toes spread out very far apart, and thus prevent 
the birds from sinking in the soft mud as they wade about 
in shallow water near the banks of rivers and marshes. 
Places like these are the favorite haunts of the herons, 
and here they stand patiently watching for fishes, frogs, 
and small reptiles. Their long necks are admirably suited 
for reaching out to catch such creatures, and their slender 
beaks quickly seize the prey, seldom missing their aim. 

2. Herons are found in all parts of the world, and they 
form one of the greatest ornaments of our Southern marsh- 
es and streams. Their flight, however, is not very grace- 
ful. These birds have no tails worth speaking of, so, when 
flying, they always stretch out their legs behind them, to 
act as a rudder, while most other birds tuck their legs 

snugly away out 
of sight. 

3. Cranes. — An- 
other large and 
elegant bird is the 
crane, which is 
sometimes over 
four feet in height, 
but otherwise not 
especially remark- 
able, unless it be 
for its long migra- 
tions twice every 
year, and for the 
perfect discipline 
which is observed 
on these jour- 
neys. 







W A DING- BIRDS. 



273 




Fig. 182. — Marabou Stork and Y 



4. Storks. — Those of you who have read the interesting 
stories about the storks that live in European and Asiatic 
cities, and perhaps have yourselves seen them there, may 
be surprised to learn that thev also are waders. These 



274 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



city birds seem to have given up their aquatic habits since 
they came to live in towns, and now they stalk about the 

streets amid throngs 
of people, and are not 
the least disturbed by 
them. The presence of 
the storks in these cit- 
ies is not only toler- 
ated, but, more than 
this, the birds are 
highly valued, because 
they feed upon gar- 
bage and small vermin, 
and in this way help to 
keep the streets clean. 
On account of these 
services, especial laws 
have been made in 
some countries for 
their protection. 

5. Their nests, placed 
in tall trees, towers, or 
chimneys, are coarse 
affairs, loosely built of sticks. In Holland persons some- 
times make false chimneys to their houses on purpose for 
the storks to build on, and that family is considered fort- 
unate that has a stork's nest upon the roof. These dig- 
nified birds are especially numerous in the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere. They assemble in large flocks before starting on 
their migrations, and it is a common belief that at such 
times they are consulting about their intended journey. 

6. The Wood Ibis. — The beautiful ibises are found in all 
warm countries. One species, the wood ibis, has gained 




Fisr. 183. — Stork's Nkst. 



WAPING-BIRDS. 



275 



for itself the reputation of being very greedy, and not 
without good cause, as you will see. With its strong hill 
it kills a great many small animals, which form its favor- 
ite food. As these victims of the voracious bird lie floating 
on the water round about the scene of their destruction, 
the ibis swallows as many as it can well take, and then 
stands stupidly on the edge of the stream, waiting until 
this meal is digested before it is able to indulge in another. 

7. The Sacred Ibis.— Then 
there is the sacred ibis, 
which was worship 
ped by the people 
of Egypt in olden 
times. Perhaps 
they loved this bird 
because it devour- 
ed the serpents 
which 




Fi£. 184. — The Sacred Ibis. 



276 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

annoyed them so much, or else because it returned each 
year at the time of the overflow of the Nile ; and the 
superstitious Egyptians may have thought they were in- 
debted to the ibis for the fertility of the country which 
results from this overflow. It is at least certain that 
they were in the habit of embalming the bird with their 
mummies, and placing curious stiff pictures of it on their 
monuments. 

8. Shore-birds. — Among the smaller waders are some of 
our pretty little shore-birds, whose quick movements are 
so interesting to watch. Small flocks of these little birds 
on the beach may be seen running out eagerly after a re- 
treating wave, snatching up tiny fishes and crabs, and hur- 
rying along to gather as many of these dainties as possible 
before the next wave comes in. Then they all mount rap- 
idly into the air to escape this coming wave, as though 
exceedingly anxious not to wet their slender toes. Their 
feast is interrupted but a few seconds, for they soon alight 
and go through the same performance. 



RUNNING-BIRDS. 277 



XLII. 

RUNNING-BIRDS (Cursores). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, AVES. 

1. Ostriches. — First among running-birds we may place 
the ostriches, whose wings are remarkably small, and quite 
useless as far as flying is concerned. In fact, these great 
heavy birds never do fly. Their bones are filled with mar- 
row instead of containing those curious air-sacs which we 
have noticed in flying-birds ; their breastbone has no keel 
for the attachment of wing muscles, and in several other 
ways they are deficient in those contrivances which enable 
most birds to support their own weight in the air. 

2. Ostriches like those seen at menageries and zoolog- 
ical gardens are natives of the deserts of Africa and Ara- 
bia, and they are the largest of all birds living at the 
present time. They often measure eight feet in height. 
Their long, stout legs are covered with scales, and they 
have but two toes, one of which is much longer than the 
other, and is armed with a strong claw. The claw some- 
times inflicts severe wounds, for the ostrich fights by kick- 
ing, and this it does so violently that it can defend itself 
against large and fierce animals. It also runs with great 
speed, and few animals can overtake it. 

3. The deep, rumbling voice of the ostrich is so much 
like the roar of a lion that travellers have often mistaken 
its harsh tones for that dreaded sound. Lions, however, 



278 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

roam abroad only at night, and this fact aids persons who 
are familiar with the habits of these two animals in dis- 
tinguishing one voice from the other. When hiding from 
enemies, an ostrich is content with poking its head out of 
sight; this stupid habit often leads to its capture. 










Fi<r. 185. — The Ostrich. 



4. The Plumage of Ostriches. — Judging merely from the 
elegant ostrich plumes which are offered for sale, persons 
who have not seen these birds might naturally suppose 
that they are covered with beautiful feathers; but, on the 
contrary, their plumage is very thin and scanty. Their 
heads and necks are almost bare, and it is only the quill 
feathers of the tail and short wings that supply the ostrich 
feathers of commerce. You will find, upon examining 
these feathers, that the barbules do not hook into each 
other after the usual manner, but each one is quite free 



RUNNING-BIRDS. 



279 



from its neighbors, thus flying apart loosely, and giving 
to the plume a peculiar softness and beauty. 

5. The Nest and Eggs. — As to the habits of ostriches in 
their native homes, the birds go together in flocks consist- 
ing of one male and six or seven females. The latter make 
their nests by scratching a hole in the sand, and each one 
lays from ten to fifteen eggs. The hens sit upon their 
eggs 3 as most birds do ; but in those warm countries of 
which the ostrich is a native, the heat of the sun is so great 
that the eggs may be left during the day without injury ; 
and as the birds have to roam for long distances in search 
of food, the nest often remains uncovered for several hours 
at a time. 

6. Some persons, having found the nests thus apparent- 
ly deserted, have formed the idea that ostriches take no 
care of their eggs, but leave them to be hatched altogether 
by the heat of the sun. So far from this being the case, 




Fig. 186. — Hunting the Ostrich. 



the old birds are extremely careful of them, and the male 
will sometimes sit upon the nest himself, if he finds one 
uncovered. After the brood is hatched, those eggs that 
have not developed, or that have become addled from any 



'280 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

cause, are broken open by the mother, who feeds her young 
birds upon the contents. 

7. The Size of the Egg. — One single ostrich egg weighs 
about three pounds, and is thought to contain as much food 
as one dozen ordinary hen's eggs. The natives roast these 
huge eggs in the shell by sticking one end in hot ashes, 
and making a hole in the upper end of the shell, through 
which they stir the contents with a stick. They also use 
the strong, thick shells, after they have been emptied, for 
drinking-cups. 

8. Ostrich - farming. — In the southern part of Africa 
many persons are employed in a kind of business called 
ostrich - farming. It is found very profitable to raise 
ostriches for the sake of their plumes, which are pulled 
once in every eight months. These always bring a good 
price, and so, likewise, do the birds and eggs when they 
are offered for sale. Were it not for caring in this way 
for the ostriches, and thus increasing their numbers, it is 
thought they would soon have been destroyed upon their 
native deserts. Ostriches have also been successfully 
raised in California within the last few years. 

9. An ostrich farm is merely a large grassy enclosure 
in which are placed a few ostriches. It is customary to 
hatch the eggs by means of an "incubator," it having 
been found that the important point in hatching eggs is 
to keep them constantly at the same temperature as the 
body of the bird when she is sitting. For this purpose a 
large chest is used with sliding drawers, between which 
are vats filled with hot water. The eggs are snugly 
wrapped in flannel and placed in the drawers, where they 
remain six weeks before hatching, and great care is taken 
to imitate the natural method as closely as possible. 

10. The Rhea. — A smaller ostrich than the one we have 



RUNNING-BIRDS. 



281 



been speaking of, called the rhea, is found in South Amer- 
ica. It lives in flocks on the pampas, and is about one half 
the size of the African ostrich. 

11. The Emu. — Another singular bird is the emu, which 
is found only in Australia. It is nearly as large as the 
ostrich, but it is not perched upon such long legs, and it 




Fie:. 187.— Emu and Wolves. 



282 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



has three toes on each foot. This is the only one of the 
running-birds that wanders about in pairs, and its large 
eggs are of a beautiful dark green color. 

12. The Cassowary. — Running -birds are not numerous, 
and, as you may have noticed, each species that we have 
mentioned so far is confined to a limited extent of coun- 
try. This is also true of the cassowary, which inhabits 
New Guinea and the Molucca Islands. The black plu- 
mage of this bird resem- 
bles the hair of a horse's 
mane, and its head is 
very conspicuous, with 
a horny crest on top, 
while the naked throat 
is ornamented with red 
and blue wattles hang- 
ing in front. Its wings 
are extremely small, and 
they are armed with five 
naked quills. 

13. The Apteryx. — 
Most curious of all the 
running-birds is the ap- 
teryx, which is found 
nowhere but in New 
Zealand. It has no tail, and the stumpy wings are quite 
hidden by its plumage. It digs a deep hole in the ground 
in which to deposit its one egg, and it frequently runs to 
this hole for protection when it is pursued. The apteryx 
seems to be a shy bird, hiding by day, and roaming about 
at night to hunt for insects and worms. 

14. Why Fossil Birds are Rare. — Fossil remains of birds 
are by no means abundant, perhaps from the fact that 




Fig. 188. — The Apteryx. 



RUNNING-BIRDS. 283 

most of the rocks in which we find fossils were formed 
in water. Now how can this fact make any difference 
in the number of fossil birds contained in the rocks ? 
Let us imagine the case of a bird, in times long past, 
having fallen into the water at some place that would be 
favorable for preserving it in a fossil condition; instead of 
sinking to the bottom, where it might soon be covered with 
mud and trash, we know that the lightness of the bird's 
bones would cause the body to float, and that in this ex- 
posed situation it would probably be devoured by some 
hungry animals, and all traces of the bird would thus be 
wiped out. This is thought to be one reason that fossil 
birds are so seldom discovered. If our imaginary bird 
had been a heavy body it would have sunk. Perhaps it 
would be covered with sediment, and after a very lone 
period of time it might become embedded in solid rock, 
and thus be preserved as the remains of so many animals 
have been. 

15. Some Large Fossils. — Among those fossils which 
have been found, however, are some ostrich -like birds, 
much larger than any now living upon our earth. A gi- 
gantic bird twice the size of an ostrich is found to have 
lived in olden times in New Mexico. Fossils of another 
bird, called the moa, twelve feet in height, have also been 
found in New Zealand. 



2S4 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XLITI. 
SCRATCHING-BIRDS (Rasokbs). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, AVES. 

1. Our Common Fowls typical Scratching -birds. — Our 
common fowls, scratching in the garden with their strong 
blunt claws, and calling their little broods to share the 
dainties they have found there, may furnish an illustration 
of this class of birds. They pass most of the time upon 
the ground, as we know, and seldom fly higher than is re- 
quired to reach their roosting -place, consequently their 
wings are weak, and they make a peculiar whirring sound 
when they attempt to fly. 

2. The scratching-birds mostly wander about in flocks, 
one male accompanying each flock, and taking no part in 
building the nests or helping to raise the young birds. 
Their nests are usually upon the ground, and the pretty, 
downy little chicks are able to run about as soon as they 
leave the egg. 

3. Although these birds scratch in the earth for worms, 
their food consists chiefly of hard grains and seeds which 
are not easily digested, and they have, therefore, large 
crops and strong, muscular gizzards. 

4. Turkeys and Pea -fowls. — Turkeys, which are still 
found wild in some parts of North America, are scratch- 
ing-birds ; so also are the gorgeous pea-fowls from India. 
The male bird, or peacock, as he is called, is celebrated for 



SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 



285 



his long train of feathers decorated with eye-like spots of 
metallic colors. The upper feathers composing the train 
are shorter than those beneath them, and in consequence 
of this arrangement the spots near their tips are all dis- 




Fig. 189.— Peacock. 



played, making a magnificent array of feathers, long 
enough to trail for some distance on the ground ; but, in 
stepping, the peacock lifts it slightly to prevent its drag- 
ging. Altogether his movements are such as to give an 
observer the idea that he never wholly forgets his hand- 



2SG ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



some train. To manage and display such a train is cer- 
tainly no slight matter. Then see him take some stately 

position and slowly 
bend his head from 
side to side, as if to 
give the full benefit 
of the sunlight to his 
glistening neck and 
breast, and you will 
not wonder he has 
been called a proud 
bird. 

5. When a sudden 
fancy takes him, the 
peacock can lift up 
his tail into the air, 
and spread out the 
feathers into a broad 
fan, and, if he wishes 
to, he can rattle the 
shafts of the feath- 
ers together so as 
to make a peculiar 
noise. The hen looks 
very meek beside her 
mate. She has no train at all, and her plumage is a 
modest brown, while the prevailing colors of the male 
are blue and green. 

6. Pheasants and their Protective Mimicry. — Pheasants 
are also found in Asia, and there they are brilliant birds, 
although our pheasants are of a sombre color. The 
golden and the silver pheasants and the argus are all 
exceedingly handsome. These gayly colored scratching- 




Eijr. 190. — Argus Pheasant. 



SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 



287 



birds, such as peacocks and pheasants, are mostly jungle- 
birds of tropical lands, and their brilliant hues blend well 
with the bright flowers and the pretty fruits and berries 
upon which they feed. On the other hand, partridges, 
guinea-fowls, and scratching-birds in general, have a din- 
gy, spotted plumage, resembling the ground upon which 
they sit or run, and by this means they escape the notice 







m?.&c 



Fig. 191. — Impeyan Pheasants. India. 



288 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

of birds of prey, to whose attacks they are much ex- 
posed. 

V. Where Partridges build their Nests. — Partridges, of 
which we have just spoken, pass the winter in our fields 




Fig. 192. — A Partridge. 

and meadows. Early in the spring they select their mates, 
and begin to build their simple nests close by the root of 
some tuft of grass or corn-stalks. The nest occupies a 
slight depression in the ground, and is often placed where 
overhanging grasses naturally conceal it and the fifteen 
or twenty beautiful eggs which it holds. 

8. The Young Brood. — Young partridges are very active, 
and they no sooner leave the shell than they start off to 
run, following their mother like a brood of chickens, and 
nestling under her wings when she is at rest. It is well 
they can run, for if they were not able thus to take care 
of themselves, these tiny little birds in their open home 
on the ground would stand a poor chance for life. The 



SCKATCHING-BIRDS. 



289 



cunning mother does what she can to ward off danger to 
her little ones by pretending lameness, in order to entice 
foes away from her nest. When alarmed, she makes a 
noise to attract attention, then throws herself on the 
ground in full sight and flutters along, dragging her 
wings as if severely wounded. After she has led her pur- 
suers far enough from the nest, her object is accomplished, 
and she then starts up and flies away in as good condition 
as ever. 

9. Both the parents and the young brood remain to- 
gether until the following spring, and form what is called 
a "covey." They are ordinarily found running in open 
fields or along fences sheltered by thickets, where plenty 
of seeds are hanging upon the weeds and bushes, and fur- 










Fie. iy:3. — Partkidgks in Winter. 



13 



290 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

nish abundant food even in winter-time. When it storms, 
the birds hide away in sheltered nooks, or creep in among 
thick bushes, huddling close together for warmth. 

10. Quails. — Quails are smaller than partridges, but 
their habits are similar, and their clear call of "Bob 
White" is familiar to most persons. Our quails and par- 
tridges both differ from the English birds bearing the 
same name. 




Fig. 194. — The Quail and her Nest. 

11. Pigeons. — Pigeons also are placed among scratching- 
birds, although, in development, they are greatly in ad- 
vance of others of the class, for they are good fliers, they 
have slender toes for perching, and they build their nests 
in trees. Another striking difference may be noticed in 
the young birds, a newly - born squab being perfectly 
naked, and as helpless and uninteresting as can well be 
imagined. It is, nevertheless, an object of tender care 
with its parents, both of whom secrete in their crops a 
soft, milky substance with which to feed their little ones. 
Taking the bills of the young birds within their own 
mouths, the parents force this partly digested food down 
the throats of the squabs. 



SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 



291 



12. Wild Pigeons. — The wild or passenger pigeons of 
North America associate in large flocks. Millions of these 
birds sometimes occupy one roost in a forest, and they 
are described as frequently breaking the branches of the 
trees with their weight. Passenger pigeons fly hundreds 
of miles to their feeding-grounds and return at night to 




Fig. 195. — A PlGEOX-LOFT. 



292 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

their nests, each bird finding its own without difficulty. 
In their migrations they fill the air like a cloud, and, al- 
though their flight is rapid, the size of the flock is so great 
that it is a long time in passing any one point. 

13. Tame Pigeons. — We are, however, most interested in 
the tame pigeons, and we find the domestic habits of these 
birds very attractive. Having once selected their mates, 
they remain true to each other for life, and both birds as- 
sist in building the nest and in sitting upon the eggs. 
There are never more than two eggs at a time in the nest, 
but several broods are raised during the year. 

14. Altogether, these birds make most satisfactory pets, 
and the fancy for keeping pigeons dates back to very 
ancient times. It is estimated that there are at least one 
hundred different breeds of tame pigeons, and the peculi- 
arities and fine points of these varieties have been careful- 
ly cultivated by " pigeon - fanciers." Perhaps you may 
recognize in the picture of a pigeon-loft on the preceding 
page some of the familiar breeds, among which are the 
fantails and the funny pouters, with their crops puffed 
out so far as nearly to hide the head. All our domestic 
breeds are thought to have descended originally from the 
rock-pigeon, which is still found wild in Europe. 

15. The Carrier-pigeon. — The carrier-pigeon is one of the 
most popular fancy pigeons, and sells for a high price. 
This aristocratic bird was employed in olden times to car- 
ry messages for kings and princes, but in these days it is 
kept merely as an ornament, and is carefully shielded from 
exposure to the weather. The homing -pigeon, a much 
smaller and plainer bird, is now sometimes trained as a 
message bearer. The homing-pigeon seems to have a nat- 
ural facility for finding its way, owing probably to the 
cultivation of its ancestors for many generations, yet, 



SCRATCHING-BIKDS. 



293 



notwithstanding this inherited tendency, each young bird 
requires careful training before it becomes expert. 

16. The Training of Pigeons. — This training is begun 
while the pigeons are very young, by taking them a short 
distance from their cot and setting them at liberty. 
Rising into the 
air and looking 
about them, the 
birds see their 
home and fly to 
it. Day after day 
they are taken out 
in the same direc- 
tion, each time a 
little farther from 
home, and they 
fly back to their 
cot as before. 
After a long pe- 
riod of training 
they become so 
familiar with the 
route that they 
will return from 
great distances, 
but this training 
must have been in 
one direction, and in clear weather. These pigeons do 
not start home in a fog, and if overtaken by night they 
stop on the way and do not continue their journey until 




19G. — Dodo (in the Foreground) and 
Apteryx. 



17. The Dodo. — The curious dodo, which formerly lived 
on the island of Mauritius, was closely related to the 



294 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

pigeon. This bird was rather larger than a swan, with 
soft plumes on its wings and tail, and it was wholly un- 
able to fly. There are no dodos living at the present time, 
but they appear to have lived until quite recently, and 
there are two or three old oil-paintings representing these 
interesting birds. These paintings and a few bones and 
feathers are all that remain to tell of the former existence 
of the dodo. 




Fig. 197. — Birds of a Feather. 



CLIMBING-BIRDS. 



295 



XLIV. 



CLIMBING-BIRDS (Scansobes). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBBATA; CLASS, AVES. 

1. Climbing-birds. — Next in order after the scratchers 
is placed a group of birds whose tastes prompt them to 
leave the ground and 
climb up into the trees, 
as parrots and wood- 
peckers do. The climb- 
ing-birds feed upon in- 
sects or fruit, and build 
their nests in holes in 
the tree -trunks, and, 
being naturally poor 
fliers, they prefer to 
pass most of their time 
among the branches. 
Their toes are well 

suited to this kind of life, since they are arranged 
in pairs — one pair on the front of the foot, and the 
other pair behind (Fig. 199), thus enabling them to 
grasp the boughs firmly, 

2. Parrots. — But parrots do not depend upon 
their toes alone m climbing ; their strong, hooked 
bills are also brought into service, and they use 
them in such a way as almost to supply the place 




296 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



of a third foot. The soft, fleshy tongue of a parrot is 

unlike that of other birds, for it may be moved in any 

direction, and it is partly on 

this account that parrots can 

be taught to imitate the human 

voice. Their tones, however, 

are shrill and harsh, and they 

have generally but few words 

in which to utter their set 

phrases. 

3. The forests of South Amer- 
ica and Australia are especially 
rich in parrots, and the plum- 
age of these tropical birds is 
remarkably brilliant. Green is 
often the prcvailng color, but 
in some species the red tints 
predominate. 

4. The Woodpecker's Search for Food. — Quite different 
from the parrots are the active little woodpeckers, which 
we mostly see standing upright on the tree-trunks, with 
the stiff points of their tail-feathers pressed against the 

trunk. Sup- 
ported in this 




Fig. 199. — Foot of Parrot. 




way, 



the birds 



hop up the 
trees by a 
succession of 
quick jumps, 
making the 
while a pecul- 
iar tapping sound by striking the beak upon the tree. 
They are now hunting for insects and grubs hidden be- 



200. — Tongue of Woodpecker. 



CLIMBING-BIRDS. 



297 



neath the bark. When a hollow sound proceeds from 
this tapping, the bird is encouraged to drill a hole into 
the bark with its long, straight beak, hoping to find its 
favorite food. If the search is successful, the woodpecker 




Fig. 201. — Woodpeckers at Home. 



then puts out its sticky tongue, which is armed near the 
end with sharp barbs, pointed backward like a fish-hook 
(Fig. 200), and draws the insect from its lodging-place. 
This curious tongue is fastened to cartilages which ex- 
13* 



298 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

tend up back of the skull and over to the forehead, and 
in consequence of this arrangement the tongue can be 
thrust out some distance beyond the beak. 

5. The limbs of apple-trees and maples are sometimes 
found pfferced by rows of little holes, extending in rings, 




Fig. 202. — Woodpecker's Nest. 



one above another, quite around the stem, and it is sup- 
posed that the woodpeckers have bored these holes to get 
at the sap in winter — a plan somewhat similar to that 
practised by farmers in obtaining the sap from which to 
make maple-sugar. 

6. The Snug" Home of the Woodpecker. — Many of our 



CLIMBING-BIRDS. 



299 



woodpeckers excavate holes in trees in which to pass the 
winter, taking the precaution to select a spot which is 
sheltered from rain and snow by an overhanging branch. 
Such cavities make snug, warm homes, but when spring 
comes the woodpecker leaves its winter-quarters, and hol- 
lows out a new nest in 
the solid live wood of 
the tree- trunk, carefully 
chipping away the in- 
ner surface to give it a 
smooth finish. In Fig. 
202 you see the entrances 
to two nests. That part 
of the trunk nearest to 
us has been cut away so 
as to show one of these 
nests inside of the tree. 
The circular entrance to 
the nest is merely large 
enough to admit the 
bird, and after extend- 
ing some distance with- 
in the tree the tunnel 
turns downward and en- 
larges into the shape of 
a long pear. The pure 

white eggs are laid on the chips at the bottom of this nest. 
7. The Cuckoo an Intruder. — The European cuckoo has 
found an easier plan than this, for she builds no nest at 
all. In fact, she lays her eggs in the nests of other birds, 
and has the assurance to leave them there to be hatched. 
Generally she deposits but one egg in a nest, and the 
young cuckoo is brought up by its foster-parents at the 




Fig. 203.— Toucan. 



300 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 







Fisr. 204. — Trogon Ei^egans, 



expense of their own 
young, for this in- 
truder soon mani- 
fests the selfish dis- 
position of its race, 
and slyly tosses the 
rightful occupants out 
of the nest. This pe- 
culiar habit of appro- 
priating the nests of 
other birds is possess- 
ed also by the cow- 
bunting of America, 
but our cuckoo makes 
a nest and raises her 
young ones in the 
usual way. 

8. The Toucan.— The 
enormous bill of the 
toucan is not as heavy 
as one might suppose, 
for instead of being 
solid it is hollowed 
out to contain a great 
many air - cells. Its 
shape, too, is admira- 
ble for robbing nests 
and deep holes of the 
eggs and young birds 
on which the toucan 
feeds, tossing them 
first in the air and 
catching them as they 



CLIMBING-BIRDS. 301 

fall. Neither is the bill too large to be snugly tucked 
away among the feathers when the bird is preparing for 
sleep. Toucans are confined to the tropical regions of 
South America, where they assemble in large flocks. 

9. Trogons. — Trogons are also tropical birds, chiefly re- 
markable for the beauty of their plumage, which is loose 
and richly colored. They live in the deep recesses of the 
forests, and sit motionless on the branches watching for 
insects. 



302 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XLV. 

PERCHING-BIRDS (Insessores). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, AVES. 

1. Perching-birds. — Perching-birds also live in the trees, 
and build among the branches, displaying great skill in 
the construction of their nests. They are unlike the 
climbers, however, in having slender, flexible toes with 
long claws, well suited to the delicate labor of nest build- 
ing, and their legs are so weak that these graceful creat- 
ures have a dainty way of hopping instead of walking. 

2. Robins. — We shall find among the perchers some of 
the most attractive birds of our fields and gardens. The 
robins, for instance, are always welcome, partly because 
they come so early in the spring and stay with us until 
late in the fall, and partly because they prefer to build 
their nests in the trees and orchards near our homes. 
Coarse and rough as these nests are, they contain four 
beautiful greenish-blue eggs, and two or three broods are 
generally raised in one summer. 

3. Robins devour a great many insects,, and in this way 
render valuable service to the farmer. A young robin in 
the nest is said to consume more than its own weight of 
food each day, and as this food consists largely of insects, 
we may form some idea of the great number that must be 
destroyed in feeding the whole family. 

4. The Baltimore Oriole. — The Baltimore oriole is a gay 
bird, with rich orange and black colors. The female bird 






PERCHING-BIRDS. 



303 




Fig. 205. — Oriole feeding its Mate. 



has the same markings as the male, although in duller 
tints, and a pair of these birds forms a handsome orna- 
ment to a lawn. The males arrive first from the South, 
and are joined a week later by the females; at this time 



304 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

they are full of song, and ready to devote themselves im- 
mediately to wooing and trying to secure a mate. 

5. The Nest of the Oriole. — The hanging nest of the Bal- 
timore oriole, as well as that of the robin, is mostly built 
near the house. It is suspended from two or more twigs 
by strings and threads, and through these threads a coarse 
fabric is woven into the form of a pouch, inside of which 
is placed the true nest of fine grass or hair. 

6. Song-sparrows. — Among the commonest of our sum- 
mer visitors are the little song -sparrows, whose cheery, 
melodious note is repeated over and over through the 
long spring days, from early in the morning until nearly 
dark. Their snug little nests are generally hidden away 
in a grassy bank, or placed on some low vine or bush, 
the male carrying the materials for building it, while the 
female weaves the nest. He is attentive to his mate, and 
when their home is completed, and the female sits content- 
edly upon her eggs, he brings her food and lingers near by 
to cheer her with his song. 

7. The Snow-bird. — The snow-bird is another of the 
sparrows. These brave little birds stay with us through 
the cold winter, when most other birds have left, but upon 
the approach of spring they fly off to Canada or some oth- 
er northern country to raise their young ones. 

8. Yellow-birds. — Our pretty yellow-birds, or goldfinch- 
es, also stay with us through the cold weather, but their 
appearance at this season is so altered by their plain win- 
ter garb that they are scarcely recognized as the same 
bird, and we might easily fancy that the yellow-birds had 
all left us. When spring comes they again assume their 
gay coats of yellow and black, enlivening the landscape 
with their bright colors and delighting us with their 

These birds are fond of thistle - seeds, 



PERCHING-BIKDS. 



305 




2. 206. — Frolic in the Snow. 



and, perched upon the branches of the prickly thistle, 
they soon tear to pieces the downy balls to obtain the 
seeds crowded together at the centre. 



306 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

9. The Crossbill. — That peculiar, crooked beak of the 
crossbill (Fig. 208) looks like a deformity, but an acquaint- 
ance with the habits of the bird shows that its bill is well 
suited to tear apart tough pine-cones in order to reach the 
seeds which form its food. Clinging to a twig of a pine- 




Fi"\ 207. — Summer Yellow-birds. 



tree with one foot, it grasps a cone with the other ; then in- 
serting its bill underneath the scales, it pries them apart by 
a sidewise motion, and scoops out the seeds with its tongue. 
10. Crossbills are bright, happy birds. They fly in 
small flocks, often visiting our gardens and flitting among 
the evergreens; but their movements are very quick, and 
they suddenly dart off as unexpectedly as they came. 



PERCHING-BIRDS. 



307 



11. The Hornbills. — The hornbills of Africa and South- 
ern Asia are conspicuous for the great size of their bills, 
which, however, are so filled with air-cavities as to be very- 
light. 

12. The nest-building habits of the two-horned hornbill 
are exceedingly odd, as you will infer from the following 




208.— The Crossbill. 



picture (Fig. 209). Having selected a hollow tree, the 
female takes her place within the hole and makes a nest 
of her own feathers, while the male from the outside plas- 
ters up the hole with mud, leaving only a small opening 
for the beak of the imprisoned female. Through this hole 
she is fed by her mate until her young family is fully 
fledged, and during this time she requires constant care 
from her attentive companion to satisfy her ravenous 
appetite. 

13. Birds -of- paradise. — Birds- of -paradise live only in 
New Guinea and the neighboring islands, and here twenty 



308 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 209. — Two-horned Hohnbill feeding its Mate. 

different species of these beautiful birds are found. The 
ordinary bird s-of -paradise most familiar to us are admired 
for the plumes of downy golden feathers growing beneath 
their wings, and large numbers are killed to supply the 



PERCHING- BIRDS. 



309 



milliner's trade. The natives who capture them usually 
cut off their legs, and this may have given rise to the 




Fig. 210. — BlRD-OF-PARADISE. 

mistaken notion of olden 
times that these birds have 
no legs, that they suspend them- 
selves by their long feathers, and 
that they never touch the earth while 
alive. 

14. The Bower-bird. — Another inter- 
esting bird of the Eastern Hemisphere is the bower-bird 
of Australia. Its chief peculiarity consists in the curious 
bowers which it builds of closely interwoven branches and 
twigs, drawn together so as to meet at the top. The en- 
trance is brushed perfectly clean, and decorated with 
bright pebbles, shells, feathers, little bleached skeletons, 



310 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 211. — Play-house of Bower-bird. 



and other ornamental articles, some of which must evi- 
dently have been carried for a long distance. These 
bowers are entirely separate from their nests, and are 
used only as play-grounds, where a festive throng assem- 
bles, apparently to exhibit their charms to the birds 
whose affections they hope to win. The males strut up 



PERCHING -BIRDS. 



311 



and down in a stately fashion, and do their best to display 
their fine forms and graceful movements to the females 
that are quietly looking on. 

15. The Shrike. — The shrike, or butcher-bird, as it is 
often called, has a singular habit of hanging small birds, 
mice, and insects 

upon the thorns .^L /dfe. 

and twigs of trees, 
as a means of pre- 
serving them for 
future use, having 
captured more 
prey than it can 
possibly eat at 
one time. 

1 6. Wrens. — 
Then there are 
the wrens — busy, 
fussy little creat- 
ures, hopping 
about our bird- 
boxes with tails 
erect, and fight- 
ing and scolding 
other birds that 
are thought to be 
trespassing upon 
their possessions. 

Almost any hole will answer for a nest, and after it is 
stuffed with twigs and rubbish, six or seven brick-colored 
eggs are laid in the centre of the mass. 

17. Humming-birds. — Our pretty little humming-birds 
belong exclusively to America, and are greatly admired 




Fisc. 212. — House- wrens. 



312 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

for their small size, as well as for the metallic lustre of 
their plumage. Their throats are especially brilliant, and 
are often adorned with a variety of beautiful colors. The 
bills of these birds are always long and slender, but it has 
been observed that they are either straight or curved, ac- 
cording to the shape of the flowers they frequent. 

18. No doubt humming-birds are associated in your 
minds with the flowers about which they flutter. They 
visit these flowers not so much to obtain honey as to capt- 
ure the insects which have been attracted by the sweet 
juices found there. The tongue, however, contains two 
hollow tubes, and it is divided at the end, thus serving 
the double purpose of catching insects and of sucking the 
honey from flowers. This remarkable tongue, like that of 
the woodpecker, is attached to a cartilage extending over 
the skull, so that it can be thrust out beyond the beak. 

19. The humming sound which you have noticed in 
the flight of these little birds, and from which they take 
their name, is produced by the exceedingly rapid motion 
of their wings. They do not often alight when taking 
their food, but by beating the air they are able to hover 
before the flowers long enough to secure their feast ; then 
they dart so suddenly from one blossom to another that 
we seldom do more than catch a glimpse of their beauti- 
ful sparkling colors. 

20. Humming-birds live in pairs, and the male defends 
his little family with much spirit. Indeed, the female 
herself is not wanting in courage, and she is slow to aban- 
don her nest even after it has been desecrated. These 
birds sometimes return to the same tree for several sea- 
sons in succession, and the young birds appear to stay 
with their parents until the fall, when they all go South 
together. 



PERCHIXG-BIRD3. 



313 



21. The Nest of the Ruby-throat. — The cup-shaped nest 
of our common humming-bird (the ruby-throat) is a tiny 
one, made of soft down taken from the stems of ferns. 
It is then covered with mosses and lichens, so closely re- 
sembling the branch on which it is placed that there is not 
much danger of discovery. Even the keenest eyes might 

fry 







- 

- 



- 



.— -*■■, --" 



Fig. 213. — Broad-tailed Humming-birds 




14 



314 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

mistake it for an old knot or for some roughness in the 
bark; and but few persons have had the pleasure of find- 
ing a humming-bird's nest, with its two white eggs scarce- 
ly larger than a pea. When these nests have been found, 
the attention of the discoverer has in most cases first been 
attracted by the suspicious behavior of the birds, they 
having betrayed their own secret by returning so fre- 
quently to the same spot. 

22. Some of our Finest Songsters. — Many of the perch- 
ing-birds are gifted with fine voices as well as with beau- 
tiful plumage, and there are some celebrated songsters be- 
longing to this large group. The European skylark is a 
great favorite, because of its beautiful song and of the 
peculiar manner in which it is given. Rising almost per- 
pendicularly from the ground, the skylark sings as it soars, 
mounting higher and higher into the air until it is lost to 
sight, although its clear tones may still be heard. The 
nightingale is another European bird famous for its melo- 
dious song. It usually begins its long, quivering strains 
in the evening and continues to sing through the night. 
Some of the thrushes, too, are very musical. The mock- 
ing-bird is one of these. It is found only in America, and 
is remarkable for its power of imitating the notes of other 
birds. Its song at night, however, is natural, and it then 
pours out a flood of enchanting music. 

23. Bobolinks in the different Characters they Assume. — 
Bobolinks arrive in New England early in the spring, and 
for a few weeks they sing very sweetly. One may see 
them perched on a twig or spear of grass in the meadow, 
uttering the while a succession of gay, frolicking notes as 
they tilt up and down on their slender support. Their 
nest is probably hidden at the root of some tuft of grass 
not very far away, but they are so cautious in approach- 



PERCHING-B1RDS. 



315 




Fig. 214. — The Nightingale. 

ing it that we shall scarcely discover its position from the 
wise little owners. 

24. At this season the male is dressed in a mottled coat 
of black and white, while the female has one of yellow- 
ish brown. Later in summer the male assumes a quiet 
garb like that of his mate, and they start off towards the 
South in search of good things to eat. They find attract- 
ive feeding-grounds among the reeds and marshes of the 
Delaware River, and soon grow fat upon the seeds which 
abound in such places. They are now called reed-birds in 



316 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

X'ennsylvania and New Jersey, and, being considered a 
great delicacy, they are shot in large numbers to supply 
the tables of the luxurious. 

25. Those birds which escape the gun of the sportsman 
next visit the rice swamps of Carolina, where they feast 
greedily upon grains of rice, and pass by the name of rice- 
birds. 

26. The character of the bobolink undergoes a complete 
change during this time. In spring the bird is very mu- 
sical ; it seems to know that it has arrived among friends, 
and it becomes tame and familiar. But after starting on 
its southern journey it loses its refined and musical tastes, 
grows silent and shy, and gives itself up to the pleasures 
of appetite. 

27. Thus the bobolink in its extended migrations, which 
are supposed to reach from Labrador to Patagonia, plays 
the part of three birds, differing in character as well as in 
appearance. 

28. Swallows. — Swallows are excellent fliers, as their 
long, pointed wings and forked tails are both favorable to 
speed. It is estimated that these birds fly from sixty to 
ninety miles an hour. They delight in places where in- 
sects abound, and here they may be seen during twilight 
flying in large circles. The sticky glue-like saliva of the 
swallows serves them a good purpose in nest-building, and 
they all make use of it to strengthen their nests or to 
fasten them securely in their places. 

29. Edible Birds'-nests. — The edible birds'-nests, so pop- 
ular among the Chinese, are built by a species of swallow. 
These nests are made of a certain kind of sea-weed, which, 
when boiled, yields a good quality of glue. The birds first 
swallow the sea-weed, then deposit from their mouths the 
material, which has been moistened with their own sticky 



PERCHIXG-BIRDS. 



317 



saliva, in layers around the edge of the nest, and the whole 
structure hardens on being exposed to the air. So the 
birds'-nests are in reality a fine gelatine. These nests are 
glued upon rocky cliffs and inside of deep caverns on the 




Fin. 215. — Xest of Edible Swallow. 



sea-shore, and from these places it is extremely difficult 
and dangerous to gather them. 

30. Bank -swallows. — Not the least interesting of the 
swallows are the bank-swallows, which, when seen at all, 
are generally congregated in large flocks. They dig holes 
for their nests in perpendicular bluffs of fine sand near 



318 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 216. — Home of the Bank-swallow. 



some sheet of water. These holes extend into the bank 
for two or three feet, and at the farthest extremity is 
placed a loose nest of hay, jauntily lined with a few soft 
goose feathers standing upright. One hole is just like an- 
other, and they are placed so close together in the bank 
that we might suppose it would puzzle the birds to find 
their nests, but each one knows its own. 

31. Whippoorwills. — Whippoorwills are rather dismal 



PERCHING-BIRDS. 



319 



birds, inhabiting secluded spots in the deep woods, and 
keeping out of sight until night comes on, when they fly 
forth in search of insects. It is at this time only that we 
may hear their mournful cry of " whip-poor-will," which 
is sounded so dis- 
tinctly as to be quite 
startling. They do 
not build a nest, but 
merely scratch a 
hole in the earth 
near a rock or fallen 
tree to contain their 
eggs. 

32. Provision for 
catching Insects. — 
Swallows and whip- 
poorwills feed upon 
insects, and no bet- 
ter trap could be de- 
vised for catching 
the tiny prey than 
is formed by their 
large mouths, which 
are moistened by 

sticky saliva, and are also furnished with bristles hanging 
from the roof of the mouth. As these birds fly about 
with their mouths wide open, the insects become hope- 
lessly entangled among the sticky bristles, and are thus 
prevented from escaping. 




Fig. 217. — Whippoorwills. 



'620 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XLVL 
BIRDS OF PREY (Eaptores). 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, AVES. 

1. Hawks. — As hawks are among the commonest of our 
birds of prey, let us take them as our example, and no- 
tice how admirably the strong, curved beak and the sharp 




Fig. 218. — Haavk and Humming-birds. 

claws (as shown in Fig. 219) are suited for seizing their 
victims and tearing the flesh from their bones. These 



BIRDS OF PREY. 



321 



birds have also large, strong wings, and their flight is 
rapid and powerful. 

2. Hawks usually fly quite low, and we may recognize 
them at a distance by their 
habit of flapping their wings 
rapidly for a while, and then 
soaring without apparent effort 
for an equal length of time. 

3. The Flight of the Eagle.— 
The movements of the eagle 
are particularly easy and grace- 
ful. Its strong wings bear it onward and upward to 
a great height in the air, and it forms one large circle 
after another, as if delighted with its own performances. 





■Claw and Bkak of 
Bird of Prey. 




Fis:. 220. — The Golden Eagle. 



4. The Golden Eagle. — The golden eagle may be seen 
circling in this majestic manner about the lofty peaks of 
mountain regions, where it places its nest, or " eyrie," on 
14* 



322 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Ficr. 221.— Eagle's Nest. 



the highest and most inaccessible cliffs. The nest is a 
very rude one, built of large sticks and branches roughly 
heaped together; still it becomes the family residence, 
and is used year after year, seldom being abandoned for 
a new nest. Neither do the parent birds desert each other 
when their young ones are grown; but having once chosen 
their mates, they continue true to them the rest of their 



BIRDS OF PREY. 323 

lives. With eagles as with other birds of prey, the fe- 
male is larger than the male. 

5. A large Supply of Food required. — For food the gold- 
en eagle seizes large birds, rabbits, fawns, and sometimes 
sheep and lambs, and carries them off bodily to its se- 
cluded nest, where they are torn in pieces and devoured. 
In this way a pair of eagles and two or three young eaglets 
consume a large amount of food; and as the bird sails 
through the air, its keen eye is directed towards the earth 
in search of fresh supplies. Small animals, either living 
or dead, are quickly discovered, and the great bird pounces 
upon them with its strong claws. 

6. Shocking as this destruction of life may at first ap- 
pear, we must not lose sight of the fact that in seeking 
such food as birds and beasts of prey do, they are only 
following the instincts of their nature, which requires ani- 
mal food, and they therefore cannot be regarded as cruel 
in their habits. 

7. The Bald Eagle. — The white - headed eagle is often 
called the bald eagle, because, at a distance, the white 
feathers on its head have somewhat the effect of baldness. 
This eagle is fond of fish, and in order to gratify this 
fondness it frequents the sea- coast, and builds its nest 
in the forks of a large dead tree. It occupies the same 
nest from one year to another, making fresh additions to 
it each season, until it grows to be a huge structure. 

8. Encounters with the Fish - hawk. — The top of a tall 
tree upon the coast affords a good view of both the sea 
and shore, and here the eagle sits and watches for prey. 
Rather than do its own fishing, the white-headed eagle 
prefers to attack the fish-hawk, and rob it of fish already 
caught from the ocean. In the encounters between these 
two birds, the fish-hawk often drops the fish it is carrying 



324 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




FR 222. — The Fish-hawk and its Nest. 



to the shore, and the eagle darts after the falling booty 
with such speed as to catch it before it reaches the water. 



BIRDS OF PREY. 6V'0 

9. The Vulture. — The neck of the vulture is mostly 
bare, but at the lower part there is a loose fold of skin 
which is covered with soft feathers, and under this warm 
fold the neck and greater part of the head can be drawn 
as a protection from the cold. Vultures are cowardly 
birds, feeding greedily upon carrion until they become al- 
most stupefied. They seldom attack living animals, but 
they have been seen to sit and watch those that were sick 
or enfeebled until life was gone before beginning their 
feast. Even these unattractive birds have their use in 
nature, for they remove decaying animal matter, the odor 
of which they can discover at a great distance. In trop- 
ical climates their services are especially valuable, as the 
dead animals thus removed would otherwise become in- 
jurious to health. 

10. The Condor. — The throat of the condor, instead of 
being bare like that of the vulture, is ornamented with a 
ruffle of showy white feathers. This huge bird is found 
only among the Andes Mountains, and here it soars in un- 
interrupted circles above the high peaks. Its movements 
are very imposing, and it is said to soar for half an hour 
at a time without once flapping its wings. 

11. The Owl. — What a wise-looking bird the owl is, with 
its large round eyes gazing directly in front of it! The 
circle of feathers which surrounds the eyes adds still fur- 
ther to the gravity of its appearance, while its loose plu- 
mage, extending all the way down to the tips of the toes, 
is extremely soft and pretty. There is a great advantage, 
too, in these loose, fluffy feathers, for they render the 
owl's flight almost noiseless, and consequently these dig- 
nified hunters are able to approach the cautious mice and 
timid little birds in the darkness without being heard. 
The small animals upon which owls feed are swallowed 



326 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



whole, and the indigestible portions, such as the feathers, 
bones, etc., are afterwards thrown out from the mouth in 
the form of small round balls. 

12. The Nocturnal Habits of the Owl. — Most owls hunt 
their prey only at night, or during twilight, at which time 




Fig. 223.— The Owl. 

they seem to have no difficulty in seeing their victims. 
Their nests are generally placed in the hollow of an old 
tree, and in this snug retreat they spend the daytime, 
venturing out only under cover of the darkness, and oc- 
casionally breaking the stillness of the night with their 
doleful notes. 



THE 0KN1TH0RHYNCHUS. 



327 



XLVII. 
THE ORNITHORIIYNCHITS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. The Ornithorhynchus. — Let us now leave the subject 
of birds and visit in fancy the island of Australia, which 
is the home of many singular animals as well as plants. 
Here we shall find the streams and pools frequented by 




Fig. 224. — Ornithorhynchus. 

a small animal called the omithorhynchus, or duck-bill, 
which is found nowhere but in Australia and the neigh- 
boring island of Tasmania. 
2. Resemblance to both Birds and Quadrupeds.— The or- 



328 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

nithorhynchus bears a curious resemblance to both birds 
and quadrupeds, and has, on this account, attracted much 
attention. The body is like that of an otter, covered 
with short, brown fur, while the head is supplied with 
a large, flat beak, much the same in shape as a duck's 
beak. Altogether this animal is so peculiar that the first 
descriptions of it were scarcely believed to be true, and 
when a stuffed specimen was taken to England, persons 
suspected that a joke had been practised upon them, and 
that the bill of some Australian bird had mischievously 
been fastened to the head of a quadruped. 

3. The Habits. — When swimming, the ornithorhynchus 
shows only its head above the surface of the water, and it 
obtains its food of worms and insects in the same manner 
as the duck, by thrusting its bill into the mud. It is a 
timid creature, preferring twilight to the glare of day, 
and taking fright very easily if any attempt is made to 
capture it. It dresses and pecks its fur with great care, 
and when asleep it rolls itself up so snugly that one 
might almost mistake it for a ball. 

4. The broad tail and short legs are no doubt helpful 
in swimming, and the web which unites the toes tells its 
own story so plainly as to need no interpreter. 

5. But the ornithorhynchus is a burrowing animal as 
well as a swimmer, and although this web extends beyond 
the claws on the forefeet, yet it does not interfere with 
digging in the earth, because when any burrowing is to 
be done the web can be folded back out of the way. 

6. The Underground Nest. — The nest of this curious ani- 
mal is under ground near a stream of water, and there 
are two passages by which it may be entered ; the open- 
ing of one passage is under water, while the other open- 
ing is in the bank above the surface of the stream. This 



THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS, 



329 



nest is lined with grass and weeds, and here, at the end 
of the burrow, which is sometimes forty feet in length, 
the tiny young animals are raised. 

7. The Ornithorhynchus is a Mammal. — The ornithorhyn- 
chus must serve as our first example of the great group of 
Mammals simply because it is lowest in the scale, and not 
because it is a good illustration. In fact, it is a poor rep- 
resentative of the class, and you will see that it presents 
some strange contradictions. It has a furry coat, to be 
sure, as we have already noticed, and this is one great 
peculiarity of Mammals — that they are all more or less 
covered with hair at some time in their lives. 




225. — Burrow of Ornithorhynchus. 



330 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

8. The Young Ornithorhynchus begins Life differently 
from most Mammals. — Another important peculiarity of 
Mammals is that their young are born alive, and are nour- 



*& 




Fig. 226. — Ornithorhynchus and Porcupine Ant-eater. 

ished for a time by the mother with milk secreted in the 
mammary glands. We should, therefore, naturally expect 
the young ornithorhynchus to begin life as other Mam- 
mals do; but the truth of the matter is, these odd ani- 
mals lay eggs after the manner of birds and reptiles, and 
thus confuse our attempts at classification. Two eggs 
are laid at a time in the nest, and when first hatched these 
little creatures with very long names are quite blind and 
helpless. 

9. Characteristics of Mammals. — We have just learned 
that all Mammals have a covering of hair at some period 
of their existence, and that their young are born alive, 



THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 



331 



except in the case of the ornithorhynchus and the porcu- 
pine ant-eater, both of which lay eggs, and both belong 
to Australia. Following the description of Mammals still 
further, we may state here some facts with regard to 
structure which apply to all members of the group, and 
which will not, therefore, need to be repeated hereafter. 




Fig. 227. — Heads and Feet of Duck, Ornithorhynchus, and Porcupine 
Ant-eater. 



The thorax and abdomen of all Mammals are separated 
from each other by a muscular partition called the dia- 
phragm. The thorax contains the heart and lungs within 
its walls, while the abdomen contains the greater part of 
the alimentary canal, the liver, the kidneys, and other or- 
gans. There is a perfect double circulation, the same as 



332 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

in birds, and the senses are highly developed. Most ani- 
mals belonging to this class have an external ear for col- 
lecting the vibrations of sound, and the eyes are protected 
by two lids which are fringed with eyelashes. 

10. The usual number of toes (or of fingers, as the case 
may be) possessed by Mammals is five, but we find the 
number sometimes varying from one single toe to a full 
set of five, each one of which is furnished with a nail, a 
claw, or a hoof. 

11. The Teeth of Mammals. — Most Mammals are supplied 
with teeth, which grow from separate sockets and form 
but a single row in each jaw. These teeth differ from 
ordinary bone in being denser and containing less animal 
matter; they are also covered with a hard substance called 
enamel, which helps to preserve them from decay. Teeth 
differ so much in size and shape that they have received 
different names according to their position in the mouth, 
and they are generally spoken of as incisors, canines, and 
molars. The sharp -edged front teeth, used in cutting 
food, are the incisors. The pointed " eye - teeth," which 
are fitted for seizing and tearing prey, and which are 
conspicuous in all carnivorous animals, are called canines. 
The molars are the grinding teeth, and their shape varies 
in accordance with the habits of the animal. 

12. The Growth of the Hair. — It is also interesting to 
know that hair, which is so characteristic of Mammals, 
grows from small sacs in the skin much in the same way 
as feathers, except that it does not split up in the process 
of development. This difference in the manner of growth 
seems but slight, yet it produces very different results, 
and the many kinds of fur and wool with which Mammals 
are clothed bear little resemblance to the plumage of 
birds. 



KANGAROOS AND OPOSSUMS. 333 



.XLVII1. 
KANGAROOS AND OPOSSUMS. 

SUB -KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Kangaroos found only in Australia. — Kangaroos like- 
wise belong to Australia, and, as is the case with the or- 
nithorhynchus, they are never found in any other part of 
the world. Upon this island, however, they are very 
abundant. Forty species of kangaroos are known to ex- 
ist here, and these species differ greatly in habit, some 
being fitted to live on the desert, while some delight in 
climbing trees in the forest, and others take naturally to 
the rocks and plains. An equal diversity may be noticed 
with regard to their size, which varies from the height of 
a rabbit to that of a large sheep. 

2. The Great Kangaroo. — From these different species 
we shall select as our subject the great kangaroo, which is 
represented in the picture (Fig. 228), and which lives in 
large herds on grassy plains. The front parts of the body 
are strangely out of proportion to the back, and the short 
forelegs and the delicately formed head, with its mild 
countenance and soft eyes, look quite unsuited to an ani- 
mal having such stout hind limbs. 

3. The Movements of the Kangaroo. — The habitual gait 
of the kangaroo is a succession of long leaps, which bring 
into play the muscles of the strong hind limbs, and which 
have, in fact, tended to produce their extraordinary devel- 



334 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




228. — The Home of the Kangaroo. 



opment. In this violent exercise the powerful tail has its 
part to perform also, and by its assistance the kangaroo is 
able to make enormous leaps in rapid succession. When 
the animal is feeding upon the grass by the way, it walks 
on all four legs, and its motion is then slow and un- 
graceful. 

4. The Pouch of the Kangaroo. — But the distinctive feat- 
ure of the kangaroo, and the one which especially inter- 
ests naturalists, is a curious pouch which the females have 
for carrying their young ones. 



KANGAROOS AND OPOSSUMS. 



335 



5. The Helpless Young. — At the time of their birth 
young kangaroos are extremely weak and helpless, and 
the mother soon lifts her tiny babies into the pouch which 




is formed by a fold of the skin 
of her abdomen. Within this 
pouch are situated the teats, 
and although the little creat- 
ures are too feeble to obtain 
their nourishment by sucking, they take hold of one of 
the teats and remain attached to it night and day, while 
the mother now and then feeds them by forcing the milk 
from her own body into their mouths. 



336 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

6. The tender young animals are carried in this warm 
cradle until they are strong enough to depend upon them- 
selves. As they grow larger, they occasionally stick their 
little heads out of the pouch to look around them, and to 
nibble at the grass within reach. Later on they jump out 
of the pouch, and scramble back again as they please, al- 
ways taking refuge there upon the slightest alarm. . 

7. Marsupials. — Animals possessing these remarkable 
pouches are called marsupials. With the single excep- 
tion of the opossum of America, marsupials are confined 
exclusively to Australia and the islands near it. And it 
is a curious fact that nearly all the Mammals found here 
belong to this interesting order of marsupials. 

8. The Virginia Opossum. — The Virginia opossum is 
about the size of a large cat. The inner toe of the hind 
foot can be folded against the other toes, somewhat like a 
thumb, and this arrangement, together with the prehensile 
tail, makes the opossum an expert climber. It lives among 
the thick forests, and is sometimes seen hanging from the 
boughs by its tail, or swinging from one tree to another 
by catching hold of the neighboring branches. 

9. The opossum sleeps through the daytime in its bur- 
row, and starts out at night to play and to search for 
food, which consists of fruits, small quadrupeds, birds, 
eggs, etc. It is a cunning robber of poultry-yards, and, 
being exceedingly wary and cautious in all its movements, 
it is not easily caught in its depredations. When the opos- 
sum is attacked, its first impulse is to escape by climbing 
into a tree ; but failing in this, it rolls itself up in the 
shape of a ball and pretends to be dead, acting its part so 
well as often to deceive even the dogs. The expression 
" playing 'possum " has no doubt originated from this fa- 
vorite trick. 



KANGAROOS AND OPOSSUMS. 



337 



10. The Young Opossums. — Young opossums are said to 
weigh only about a grain at the time of their birth, and 
to show but little indication of the shape to which they 
grow afterwards. When they are old enough to leave 




Fig. 280. — Virginia Opossum. 



the pouch, they sometimes curl their slender tails around 
the strong tail of their mother, and, huddled together upon 
her back, they cling to her in this odd fashion as she moves 
about among the branches of the trees. 
15 



338 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



XLIX. 

SLOTHS, ARMADILLOS, AND GREAT ANT- 
EATERS. 

SUB- KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. South America the Home of the Edentata. — Australia, 
as we have seen, has its ornithorhynchus and its kanga- 
roos, and New Zealand its wingless birds. Another ex- 




Fisr. 231.— Sloth. 



ample of this partial distribution of animals is found in 
South America, which is exclusively the home of the 
sloths, armadillos, and great ant - eaters. All of these 



SLOTHS, ARMADILLOS, AND GREAT ANT-EATERS. 339 

sluggish animals belong to the order Edentata, so called 
from the fact of their having no true teeth. 

2. The Peculiar Habits of the Sloths. — The strangest 
thing about the sloths is that they pass their whole life 
hanging from the branches of trees with their backs 
downward, as seen in the picture (Fig. 231). The struct- 
ure of the body is especially fitted for this peculiar posi- 



- mm 



tion, and scarcely admits of any other; so they hang there 
day and night, even when asleep, trusting to the grasp of 
their strong, curved claws. 

3. They feed upon the leaves and young shoots of trees, 
and rarely descend to the ground if they can avoid doing 
so. In a dense forest they can readily swing from the 
branches of one tree to another in order to find a fresh 
supply of food; and in thus changing their abode they of- 
ten take advantage of a time when the boughs are swayed 
to and fro by the wind. But so great is their aversion to 
coming to the ground, that when the trees are standing 



340 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



too far apart to be reached in this ingenious manner, the 
sloths will devour every particle of foliage on the tree 

upon which they 
are hanging be- 
fore they leave it 
,to climb into an- 
other. 

4. Their Feet not 
fitted for Walk- 
ing. — These sin- 
gular animals are 
clothed with dull, 
thick hair, much 
the color of the 
bark and moss ; 
so they are quite 
inconspicuous 
among the leafy 
branches, and are 
safer in this re- 
treat than on the 
ground. Here 
they have great 
difficulty in walk- 
ing, as their curved feet and long claws prevent their 
treading fairly on the bottom of the foot. They are there- 
fore obliged to step on the side of the foot, and the sole is 
turned towards the body. Owing partly to this defect, 
and partly to the fact that their fore limbs are much 
longer than the hind ones, their gait is extremely slow and 
laborious. Seen under these circumstances, the sloths ap- 
pear to deserve the name they have received; but when 
really at home in the tree-tops of their native forests, they 




Fig. 233. — Three-banded Armadillo. 



SLOTHS, ARMADILLOS, AND GREAT ANT-EATERS. 341 



climb among the branches with great ease, and their move- 
ments are not then particularly slothful. 

5. The Armadillo lives in a Coat of Mail. — Armadillos, 
on the other hand, are burrowing animals, and their strong- 
claws are used for digging. But they are chiefly remark- 
able for their thick coat of mail, which consists of hard, 
bony plates united at their edges. One of these plates 
covers the head, 
another the 
shoulders, and a 
third protects the 
hinder parts of 
the body, while 
between these last 
two shields sever- 
al movable plates 
of the same bony 
material extend 
like bands around 
the body, and al- 
low it to bend 
freely. 

6. How Arma- 
dillos protect 
Themselves. — 
When these ani- 
mals are attacked 
they burrow rap- 
idly into the 
earth. Some species roll up into a ball, as shown in Fig. 
234, thus securely protecting themselves. At such times 
the head and tail are drawn closely together and tucked 
snugly into a little crevice, where the two extremities of 




Fix. 234 



-Armadillos Rolled for Protection. 



342 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the shell meet, and the result is a hard, solid ball, which 
may be rolled over and trampled upon without injury. 

7. The Great Ant-eater. — Still another phase of life is 
shown by the great ant-eater, an animal four or five feet 




Fit>\ 235. — Great Ant-eater. 



in length, with a large bushy tail, which is sometimes 
thrown over its body as a shade from the sun. Its long 
jaws are covered with skin, except at the end, where there 
is an opening through which the worm - like tongue is 
thrown out. The ant-eater as well as the sloth has curved 
claws, and it also walks upon the side of its foot. 

8. This curious animal feeds almost entirely upon white 
ants. It tears open their nests with its strong claws, and 
as the inmates rush forth in alarm, it thrusts out its long, 
sticky tongue into their midst and then swallows the mul- 
titude of ants adhering to it. This operation is repeated 



SLOTHS,. ARMADILLOS, AND GREAT AXT-EATERS. ?AZ 

again and again with surprising rapidity, and large quan- 
tities of ants are thus devoured. 

9. Fossil Remains of the same Type found in South Amer- 
ica. — Not only is this order of toothless animals peculiar 
to South America in the present day, but here are found, 
likewise, most of the fossil remains of extinct animals of 
this type. Some of these fossils are interesting from their 
great size. The megatherium, for instance, was an im- 
mense sloth -like animal, eighteen feet in length with, 
bones as massive as those of an elephant, and the glypto- 
don resembled a large armadillo, except that it had no 
transverse bands in its shield. The body was covered 




Fi£. 236. — Megatherium. 



with one large plate of bone shaped like a turtle's shell, 
and the glyptodon must, consequently, have been unable 
to roll itself up as the armadillos of our own time do. 



344 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



L. 

WHALES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Whales. — The largest animals now living are the 
whales, huge inhabitants of the ocean, which sometimes 
reach the length of seventy or eighty feet, and whose 
heads constitute nearly one-third of this enormous length. 

2. Whales are fish-like in form, with strong, flat tails, 
set horizontally in such a way as to strike the water with 
great force, and thus enable the animal to come easily to 
the surface, or to plunge as rapidly into the depths below. 
Their fore limbs are incased with a tough skin, and serve 
merely as swimming-paddles, while, to all outward appear- 
ances, they are entirely destitute of hind limbs. Under 
the skin, however, and imbedded in the flesh, there is a 
set of bones which are the rudiments of hind limbs. 

3. The Spouting of Whales. — Although whales lead an 
aquatic life, and are formed, as we have seen, for swim- 
ming, still, they are true air-breathing Mammals, and they 
are obliged to come to the surface once in a while to 
fill their lungs with a fresh supply of air. It is at these 
times that the curious "spouting" or "blowing" occurs; 
but the representations of this interesting performance have 
been greatly exaggerated, and instead of spouting large 
streams of water, as we have been led to suppose, they 
merely send up a delicate fountain of spray from the nos- 



WHALES. 



3±5 




Fig. 237. — Whale, with its Young Calf. 



trils, or "blow-holes," which are situated on top of the 
head, and which are provided with valves to keep out the 
water. 

4. Upon rising to the surface of the ocean, whales begin 
to drive the air from their lungs before they reach the 
15* 



346 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

top, and the water which is above the head is forced up- 
ward by the violent expiration. In addition to the dis- 
play which is thus produced, the watery vapor from the 
lungs is suddenly condensed on coming into the cold at- 
mosphere, and these two causes combine to form the pleas- 
ing and ever -welcome spectacle of a fountain at sea. 
This spouting is accompanied by an explosive sound, 
somewhat like that of a large wave breaking upon the 
shore, and as it is necessarily repeated at certain intervals, 
the whale is unable to conceal its whereabouts even when 
closely pursued. 

5. Whales strongly attached to their Young. — It is be- 
lieved that whales live to a great age; but as it is not 
possible to obtain any facts upon the subject, this point, 
as well as many others connected with their life in the 
boundless ocean, must remain in doubt. They are said, 
however, to select mates, and to be strongly attached to 
them and to their young, and whalers tell us that the 
mother often swims or floats upon the rolling waves 
holding one flipper tenderly over the back of her calf. 

6. The Greenland Whale valuable for its Oil. — The Green- 
land whale, which lives in the Arctic seas, is the one sought 
by whalers for its oil; hence it has received the name of 
" right whale." The blubber, from which the oil is ob- 
tained, is a layer of fat connected with the skin, and cov- 
ering the animal, in some instances, to the depth of two 
feet. This thick layer of blubber serves a double pur- 
pose, and gives buoyancy to the massive body of the 
whales at the same time that it protects them from the 
extreme cold of the icy waters. 

7. Whalebone. — The whalebone of commerce is also 
taken from the right whale. This valuable article grows 
in broad plates (Fig. 239) which hang from the roof of the 



WHALES. 



U7 



' 




—Greenland Whale. 



mouth, and there are sometimes as many as three hundred 
of these whalebone plates suspended side by side. The 
outer edge of the plates is smooth and unbroken, but the 
inner edge, towards the middle of the mouth, is fringed 
with frayed-out whalebone fibres, so that the roof of the 
mouth has the appearance of being covered with coarse 



348 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



hairs. The brush - like ends of the plates extend below 

the under jaw when the mouth is opened, and make an 

excellent strainer for collecting food. 

8. The Food of the Whale.— The right whale has no teeth, 

and the opening of its throat is too small to admit of 

swallowing even a herring of 
ordinary size. Its food, there- 
fore, consists of jelly-fishes, 
ctenophora, mollusks, and 
other small animals which live 
together in great shoals in 
the Arctic seas. While feed- 
ing, the whale swims through 
these shoals with its mouth 
standing wide open; a stream 
of water constantly passes 
into the mouth and flows out 
at the sides, bringing with it 
the tiny animals and leaving 
them entrapped in the whale- 
bone fringes. When they 
have been collected thus in 
sufficient quantities, they are 
swallowed from time to time, 
and you may imagine it takes 
a large number of such jelly- 
like creatures to satisfy the 
appetite of these monsters, 
is mostly found alone or in pairs, 

unless it be when larger numbers are attracted to good 

feeding-grounds. 

10. The Rorqual. — The rorqual differs from the right 

whale in having its skin ridged witlj deep furrows. It is 




Whalebone. 



9. The right whale 






WHALES. 



349 



generally this whale which is caught on our shores, as it 
ventures farther south than the right whale. 

11. Sperm-whales. — Sperm-whales frequent the tropical 
seas, and here they live in great schools. They may be 
recognized by their large, square heads, which have a sin- 
gle blow-hole near the extremity of the snout. They have 
none of the curious whalebone plates we have just been 
studying about, but the narrow lower jaw is furnished 
with large, conical teeth, slightly curved, and when the 
mouth is closed, the teeth fit into cavities in the upper 
jaw. 




HBi 



.;":•.*, 




Fig. 240. — Sperm-whale. 



12. Spermaceti. — These whales are captured for the pur- 
pose of obtaining spermaceti, which is a fatty substance 
in a semi-fluid state, but which, on being taken from the 
animal, hardens as it cools. The large head is partly oc- 
cupied by a cavity containing spermaceti, and other cavi- 
ties throughout the body are. also filled with it. 



350 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

13. Ambergris. — Ambergris is another valuable product 
of the sperm-whale. This waxy substance has an agree- 
able odor, and it is used in the manufacture of perfumery. 




Fig. 241. — Dolphins. 

It is found in large quantities in the intestines of the 
whale, but at times floating masses of this peculiar sub- 
stance are washed on shore, and it is then easily gathered 
for sale. An interesting point with regard to ambergris 
is that it is thought to result from slight injuries to the 
intestines received from the "parrots' beaks," which you 
will remember as being characteristic of the cuttle-fish 
family. Cuttle-fishes form the principal food of the sperm- 
whale, and when these parrots' beaks are swallowed they 
are supposed to produce in the alimentary canal an irrita- 
tion which causes the formation of ambergris. 



WHALES. 351 

14. Dolphins and Porpoises. — The dolphins and porpoises, 
so common in all seas, are much smaller than the true 
whales, and their playful capers are highly entertaining. 
They will follow a vessel in large companies, often leap- 
ing out of the water, and frolicking and tumbling about 
under her very bows. When chasing their prey they 
sometimes pursue schools of small fishes with such eager- 
ness as to follow them into our bays and for some dis- 
tance up the rivers. The dolphin is more elegant in form 
than the porpoise, and may be known by its long snout. 

15. The Narwhal remarkable for its Tusk. — Another 
whale requiring our attention is the narwhal, or sea-uni- 




$ip N /fa^ 



Fit:. 242.— The Narwi 



corn, which is remarkable for its one great tusk. This 
strong weapon is possessed only by the males, and it is 
in reality the left upper incisor, grown to a prodigious 
length. It projects from the upper jaw, straight forward 



352 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

in the line of the body, and it keeps on growing through- 
out the whole life of the animal, until it sometimes meas- 
ures eight or ten feet — a goodly-sized tooth, which is spi- 
rally twisted, and tapers to a point. Its companion, the 
right incisor, is only a rudimentary tooth, and does not 
often grow into view. The ivory of the narwhal's tusk 
is very valuable, as it takes a fine polish, and retains its 
beautiful whiteness for a long time. 



HOUSES. 



353 



LI. 

HORSES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Horses known chiefly as Domestic Animals. — Horses 
have so long been associated with man, and employed so 
exclusively in his service, that we scarcely realize there 




Fig. 243. — Horses. 

was once a time when these noble animals were free and 
unrestrained. There are some wild horses at the pres- 
ent day, it is true, yet it is believed that all of these have 



354: ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

descended from tame horses which escaped from their 
masters. 

2. Horses brought to America by the Spaniards. — The 
history of the horse on our own continent, so far as it is 
known, is exceedingly interesting. It shows that at the 
time of the discovery of America there were no horses 
here, and that they were afterwards brought into the coun- 
try by the Spaniards during the Mexican wars. 

3. According to the accounts of this conquest, the na- 
tives of Mexico were greatly astonished to behold the in- 
vaders upon horseback. Not only was the beautiful ani- 
mal itself wholly unknown to them, but their surprise was 
further increased by the remarkable sight of a man seated 
upon its back. 

4. Proofs of their Former Existence in America. — Not- 
withstanding the fact that horses were then unknown in 
America, still the fossil remains which have been found 
in the western part of the United States prove that horses 
existed in the New World in very early times. Therefore, 
for some good reason which is not understood, they must 
have died out upon this continent before the arrival of 
the Europeans upon our shores. 

5. Descent from a Small Horse with Four Toes. — These 
interesting fossils likewise show us that the horses of that 
far-off time were curious little animals, very different from 
the graceful, elegant horses of our own day. The earli- 
est of these creatures yet found was a small animal, only 
about the size of a fox, with four well-developed toes on 
the fore-foot and rudiments of the fifth toe. 

6. Gradual Loss of Superfluous Toes. — Since that time the 
horse has gradually increased in size and lost its super- 
fluous toes, and naturalists now have the satisfaction of 
tracing its descent by means of these fossils through the 



HORSES. 



355 



intermediate four-toed and three-toed forms, down to the 
horse of the present day with its one perfect toe. 

7. These changes must, of course, have occurred by easy 
stages. The side toes, no doubt, gradually diminished in 
size, and at the same time the middle toe grew larger and 




Fis. 244. — Group of Horses. 



stronger, supported by the solid hoof, which is merely a 
very thick nail. 

8. The Modern Horse a One-toed Animal. — Horses, there- 
fore, as we know them, walk on this long middle toe, 
which is covered with the strong hoof, and forms what is 



356 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

generally spoken of as the foot. What we call the horse's 
knee is in reality the heel, and under the skin just below 
the heel may yet be found two slender "splint-bones," 
which are remnants of the lost toes of the ancestor of our 
modern horse. 

9. Valuable Service to Man. — Horses are remarkably in- 
telligent and docile, showing a strong memory for j^laces. 
They yield themselves wholly to the service of man, often 
entering with enthusiasm into the work assigned to them; 
and we can scarcely estimate the assistance they have 
rendered him in the spread of civilization throughout the 
world. Each of the various breeds of horses is suited to 
some special kind of labor; and we may notice that while 
one breed excels in speed, and another in strength, others 
are valued for their powers of endurance. 

10. Small Horses in Cold Countries.— In cold and stormy 
regions the horses are apt to be small and shaggy, as is the 
case with the ponies' of the Shetland Islands. These po- 
nies are exposed to bitter cold in their native island home, 
and they need all the protection which is afforded by their 
thick, shaggy coats. 

11. Wild Horses go in Troops. — Horses in a wild condi- 
tion are in the habit of congregating in large troops, which 
are led by one male. Fierce conflicts occur between the 
males to secure this leadership, and the unsuccessful ones 
are sometimes driven off from the flock into a solitary life. 
They fight by throwing the fore -feet with great force 
upon their enemies, or by kicking violently with the hind- 
feet. 

12. The Zebra. — Closely related to the horse is the zebra, 
which is conspicuous for its slender limbs and beautifully 
striped silky hair. It is altogether one of the most ele- 
gant animals, but its disposition is vicious, and it is not 



HOKSES. 



357 




Fig. 245.— Zebras. 



easily tamed. Zebras are natives of the southern part of 
Africa, where they graze in large herds upon the grassy 
plains. 



358 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



LIL 
DEER. 

SUB- KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. The Deer. — The beautiful deer, with their slender 
limbs and small heads proudly erect, are general favor- 
ites, but to appreciate them fully they should be seen in 
their natural wild state. The forests of most countries, 
except Australia, are adorned with their elegant figures, 
and as they are timid animals they have a tendency to 
live together in flocks. They run rapidly, and are ex- 
ceedingly graceful in all their movements. 

2. Antlers unlike the Horns of other Animals. — Perhaps 
the most distinguishing feature of the deer family is their 
large horns, or antlers, as they are called, which are pos- 
sessed by the males only, and are quite different from or- 
dinary horns. The antlers are solid, and are branching in 
form. Regularly, at the end of each year, they fall off 
and are replaced by new ones, whereas the horns of most 
animals are hollow, and grow around a bony core which is 
part of the skeleton itself; consequently, these horns are 
never shed, and one set lasts during a whole lifetime. 

3. The Growth of the Antlers.— The antlers of the deer 
are in their finest condition in the autumn and winter, but 
towards spring the stag is observed to rub his head rest- 
lessly against the trees, as if to rid himself of an uncom- 
fortable burden, and when the antlers finally drop off he 



DEER. 



359 



is deprived not only of his chief ornament, but also of his 
means of defense. Tender little knobs push up in place 
of the cast-off antlers, and he is soon furnished with a fine 
new pair. 

4. These knobs are covered with a velvety skin, which 
is richly supplied with blood-vessels, bringing material to 



V\- 




Fig. 246. — Stag, or Red-deer. 

build up the new antlers. The antlers grow rapidly, and 
send out branches at the proper points, so that within 
four or five months another pair of horns takes the place 
of the old ones, and the deer is again fully equipped, and 
eager to try his strength with his fellows. 

5. When the antlers have reached their full size, the 



360 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

blood-vessels to which we have alluded are gradually- 
closed, and as the velvety skin is thus deprived of its 
nourishment, it dries and peels off, leaving the strong new 



(Esophagus 




3d stomach 



Intestine. 



Fig. 247. — Stomach of a Ruminating Animal. 



horn uncovered. The antlers usually gain one additional 
prong with every new growth, and in this way become 
larger and more branched each succeeding year, until in 
old age they are very large. 

6. Ruminating Animals. — Deer are ruminating animals, 
or, in other words, they chew the cud the same as oxen do. 
You may not have had an opportunity to observe this for 
yourselves in the deer, but no doubt you have watched 
the cow contentedly chewing her cud during her hours 
of leisure, and perhaps you have wondered at those lumps 
that rose in her throat soon after you saw her swallow her 
food. 

1. Digestion in Ruminating Animals. — This process of 
chewing the cud is truly a curious one, and we must now 
try to find out what we can about the digestive apparatus 



DEER. 



361 



of the deer, the cow, the sheep, and other animals which 
possess a habit so peculiar. 

8. These ruminating animals feed entirely upon vegeta- 
ble substances, of which they take large quantities, and it 
is their custom to swallow their food hastily without much 
chewing, and then afterwards to raise it into their mouths 
and masticate it thoroughly at their leisure. They are en- 
abled to do this by having a very complicated stomach, 
which is divided into four chambers, as shown in Fig. 247. 




Fig. 248. — Reindeer Digging in Snow. 



9. In the first place, we must notice that these animals 

have no incisors on the upper jaw, and the grass is drawn 

into the mouth with their long tongues and bitten off 

against the hard upper gum. When swallowed, the food 

16 



362 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

enters the first large stomach, or "paunch," where it is 
moistened with digestive juices, and then passes into the 
" reticulum," the inner surface of which is divided into 
small cells like a honey-comb. Here the food is pressed 
into little balls, which, by a process of muscular contrac- 
tion exactly opposite to that of swallowing, return to the 
mouth to be eaten over again. 




Fig. 249. — Travelling in Lapland. 

10. The food, on being swallowed the second time, de- 
scends to the third cavity, and in doing so you will see 
that it must pass directly over the openings into the first 
and second stomachs; but the lip-like edges of these open- 
ings seem to have the power of selecting what shall be 
received and what shall be allowed to pass by. 

11. This third cavity is called the "many-plies," from 
folds in the lining which resemble the leaves of a book. 
The fourth stomach, the " abomasum," supplies the gastric 
juice, and it is the true organ of digestion. 

12. Manner of Feeding suited to timid Animals. — How 
admirably this manner of receiving food is suited to the 



DEER. 



363 




shy and timid deer ! They are so easily alarmed that it 
must be greatly to their advantage to be able to swallow 
their food rapidly and runaway to their shady retreats. 



364 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

13. Cloven-footed Animals. — Those animals that chew the 
cud are also " cloven-footed;" that is to say, they have two 
toes encased in hoofs which have the appearance of one 




Fig. 251. — The Koodoo. 

hoof that has been split into two equal parts. In addi- 
tion to these toes, deer have two smaller toes at the back 
of the foot which seldom touch the ground, but still they 
are encased in dainty little hoofs. 

14. The Reindeer. — Reindeer are confined to the ex- 
treme north of Europe and America, and they are the 
only species of deer that have been thoroughly domesti- 
cated. They are not only used for drawing sleds, but 
their milk and flesh supply the natives with food, and 
their skin is valuable for clothing. In Norway and Swe- 
den large herds of reindeer are owned by the farmers, 



DEER. 365 

who roam over the mountain districts with their herds to 
find summer pasture. 

15. What the Reindeer Eat. — These strong, heavy ani- 
mals eat scarcely anything but reindeer moss and lichens, 
which they obtain by digging with their fore-feet under 
the snow, and in doing so, as the hole grows deeper and 
larger, the animal is sometimes almost hidden from sight. 
They claim the privilege of searching their own food, and 
will not eat moss which has been gathered for them. 

16. Good Travellers. — Reindeer are fine travellers, espe- 
cially in cold weather. When the way is good, and not 
too hilly, they can travel a hundred miles in a day. Their 




Fig. 252.— Thk Gazelle. 

feet are well suited to walking upon snow, owing to the 
manner in which the hoofs separate in treading, and by 
the long, coarse hair growing between the hoofs. The 
foot may also be closed in such a way as to give a firm 
support in rocky places. This is the only kind of deer in 
which the females have antlers. 



366 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig;. 253. — The Graceful Chamois. 



17. Proofs of the Extreme Heat and Cold in Past Ages- 
Remains of the reindeer have been found over the greater 
part of Europe, and their presence in the same localities 
that have at other times been frequented by the lion, the 
rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus points to the fact that 



L>EER. 367 

these regions have been subject at different periods to 
the extremes of both heat and cold. 

18. Antelopes. — Antelopes are especially abundant in 
Africa. These attractive animals are not classed with the 
true deer family, for they have hollow horns, and they 
do not shed them. The horns of some species of ante- 
lopes are dark and rich in color, and grow into beautiful 
shapes. The spirally twisted horns of the koodoo, for 
example, are very ornamental. 

19. The Gazelle. — The best known of the antelopes is 
probably the gazelle, which is admired for the elegance 
of its form and movements, as well as for the mild ex- 
pression of its "soft black eye." The gazelle roams 
through the wilds of Africa in large herds, and this gentle 
creature forms the ordiuary food of the lion and the 
panther. 

20. The Chamois. — The chamois is a European antelope, 
living in flocks among the mountains, where it bounds 
with great ease over the rocky cliffs. 



368 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



Lin. 

CAMELS. 

SUB KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Camels as Beasts of Burden. — For centuries the camel 
has been used by merchants and travellers as a beast of 
burden to cross the sandy plains of Africa and Arabia, 
and long before the Cape of Good Hope was discovered 




Ei<r. 254. — Camel. 



treasures of gems and spices and the richly woven fabrics 
of the East were carried on the backs of these large, un- 
gainly animals to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, 
that they might be distributed to all parts of Europe. 



CAMELS. 369 

2. The Structure adapted to Life on the Desert. — Cam- 
els, from their peculiarities of structure, are well adapted 
to the life they lead on the desert. They are not only 
ruminating animals, but they can go for many days with- 
out water, being provided with a singular arrangement of 




Fig. 255. — Skeleton of a Camel. 

cells in the first stomach, or paunch, which they fill when 
they have access to water, and keep as a reservoir for fut- 
ure use. Their two long toes rest on a broad, horny cush- 
ion which prevents them from sinking in the loose sand, 
and their nostrils can be closed at will to protect them 
from the fine particles of dust blown over the desert by 
the fierce winds that visit it. 

3. The Hump a Reserve Supply of Food. — The large, un- 
sightly hump on the back of the camel is not a part of the 
skeleton, as you will see by referring to Fig. 255, but it is 
only a mass of fat which slowly diminishes in size when 
16* 



370 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the animal is on long journeys and food is scarce. The 
fat which is stored up in the hump is gradually absorbed 
into the blood, so the camel, in reality, carries a reserve 




Fig. 256. — Bactrian Camel. 

supply of food in this hump. The African or Arabian 
camel has but one hump, and is often called the dromedary. 
The Bactrian camel from Central Asia has two humps. 

4. Camels have been Domesticated. — Camels belong ex- 
clusively to Asia and Africa, but they are no longer found 
in a wild state, man having appropriated them to his own 
uses. They are celebrated for their gentleness and pa- 
tience, and are often required to travel with enormous bur- 
dens. When quite young they are trained to kneel down 
and receive these heavy loads, and in doing so they afford 
a most unusual picture of meekness and long-suffering. 

5. Their Uses to Man. — The wealth of the Arab often 
consists in his camels, the uses of which are as various as 
those of the reindeer to the Laplander. The flesh and milk 
yield him food, the hair he weaves into clothing, the hides 



CAMELS. 



371 



he makes into sandals, saddles, and other useful articles. 
Seated with his family upon the back of his trusty camel, 
he is conveyed with long, shambling strides upon his 
weary journeys; his goods and chattels, piled up on the 
saddle and hung from its sides in indescribable confusion, 
are moved from place to place by the same conveyance. 

6. Camels raised in the United States. — The experiment 
of raising camels in the United States has been tried with 
a good degree of success, and they now breed in Nevada. 

7. The Llama. — The llama of South America is quite 
similar to the camel, though it is smaller and has no hump, 
and is in every 
way fitted for a 
mountain life. 
Each toe has a 
separate pad and 
a strongly curved 
hoof, which as- 
sists in climbing 
steep rocks, and 
the llama bounds 
over the cliffs of 
the Andes with 
the ease and ac- 
tivity of a goat. 
The teeth of 
camels and lla- 
mas differ from 
those of all oth- 
er animals that 
chew the cud, for these are the only ruminants that have 
incisors growing in the upper jaw. 




Fier. 257. — The Llama. 



372 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



LIV. 

ELEPHANTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATAt CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. The Elephant's Trunk. — The great size of the ele- 
phant, and the remarkable trunk which it uses so nimbly, 
are sure to awaken our interest whenever we see these cu- 
rious animals. Did you ever suspect that this wonderful 
trunk or proboscis is merely the nose of the elephant pro- 
digiously lengthened out? for that is just what it is — a 
very long nose, which, oddly enough, serves also for an 
upper lip. The nostrils extend down through the whole 
length of the trunk, and above the openings into them 
there is a finger-like tip, which is used as a hand in pick- 
ing up small objects. 

2. The trunk is well supplied with muscles, which allow 
it to bend freely in every imaginable direction, and it is a 
most useful implement to the elephant, whose short neck 
and long tusks interfere with the usual manner of obtain- 
ing food and drink. Elephants cannot reach the ground 
with their heads to bite off their food, or to satisfy their 
thirst at the brooks and streams, consequently all their 
food is lifted to the mouth by the finger-like tip of the 
trunk, and, in drinking, water is sucked up into its hollow 
tubes. The end of the trunk is afterwards doubled up 
and placed in the mouth, and the supply of water it con- 
tains is emptied down the throat. Besides these inipor- 



ELEPHANTS. 



tant uses, the trunk is also the organ of smell, of touch, 
and of defence. 

3. The Skull and Tusks. — If you should have an oppor- 
tunity to examine the skull of an elephant, you will find 




it to contain many hollow 
spaces which are filled with air, 
and which greatly reduce the 
weight of the large, clumsy-look- 
ing head. Its size and strength, 
however, are sufficient to support 
the huge tusks, which often weigh from one hundred and 
fifty to two hundred pounds. The tusks are the incisor 
teeth of the upper jaw, which continue to grow during 
the lifetime of the elephant, and sometimes reach a great 
length. 



374 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

4. Their Home and Habits. — These large animals live in 
herds in the forests of tropical Asia and Africa. They 
feed upon grass and foliage, and seem to prefer the shade 
of the forests to the glaring sunlight, as they generally 
stroll out towards night. 

5. The African Elephant. — The only species now living 




Fig. 259. — Indian Elephants. 

are the Indian elephant and the African elephant. The 
African elephant has great, flapping ears, and it is more 
fierce than that of India. It is hunted chiefly for its 
tusks, which yield fine ivory, and are therefore very val- 
uable. The demand for tusks is so great that there is 
reason to fear these elephants will be entirely destroyed 
in order to supply the trade. The immense size of these 



ELEPHANTS. 375 

living curiosities reminds us, in a way that no other ani- 
mals do, of the huge monsters of various kinds that for- 
merly dwelt upon our earth. 

6. The Indian Elephant. — Indian elephants have mild 
dispositions, but if they are irritated they become furious 
and revengeful. It is stated that they can be easily tamed, 
no matter what their age or size may be, and in India they 
are used for many kinds of labor which require intelli- 
gence and skill. Strangest of all these employments is 
that of catching wild elephants. 

7. The Capture of Wild Elephants. — To assist in captur- 
ing their fellows after having been deprived of their own 
liberty seems more than could be expected of these pow- 
erful animals; yet they enter into the labor with spirit, 
as if they understood the object to be accomplished and 
the best means to attain it. They urge on the reluctant 
ones among the wild animals which they are pursuing, 
pushing them forward if necessary, and if any are thrown 
down they kneel upon them and keep them upon the 
ground by their immense weight until they can be se- 
cured by ropes. It is claimed that these are not tricks 
taught to a few individuals, but that all working elephants 
in India are expected to possess such intelligence and sa- 
gacity. 

8. White Elephants. — The "white elephants" about 
which we hear so much are merely albinos of the Indian 
species. In other words, they are of a lighter color than 
most of their kind. Generally they are far from white. 
Now and then an elephant is found with white spots on 
its skin, or sometimes the whole animal is of a light color; 
but whether it shall be considered a " white elephant " or 
not depends upon the decision of the people of Burmah 
and Siam. In these countries they are regarded as sacred, 



376 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

and are claimed by the kings, who pay handsomely for 
them and keep them in royal style. 

9. Mammoths and Mastodons. — Although but two spe- 
cies of elephants now remain, there is reason to believe 
that these giants were numerous in olden times. Mam- 
moths and mastodons are no longer living, but their fossil 
remains in Europe, Asia, and America are found abun- 
dantly at the bottom of swamps, where the heavy beasts 
seem to have mired. 

1 0. Several mammoths, covered with long woolly hair, 
have been found perfectly preserved in the frozen gravel 
of Siberia. Much of the ivory of commerce comes from 
Siberia, and it is obtained from these extinct mammoths. 



LIONS AND TIGERS. 



377 



LV. 



LIONS AND TIGERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. The Lion. — Among all the dreaded beasts of prey 
there are none so well calculated to inspire their victims 
with terror as the lion, on account of his great size, his 




Fig. 260. — Lions. 



majestic bearing, his fierce countenance, and, above all, his 
terrible roar. We shall find by examining his formidable 
mouth that, like the mouths of other carnivorous animals, 



378 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



it is furnished with long, sharp teeth, well suited for tear- 
ing prey, and the tongue is roughened by horny points 
directed backward, which are of great assistance in scrap- 
ing the flesh from the bones. 

2. The Characteristics of the Cat Family. — Lions are of- 
ten spoken of as belonging to the cat family, a group hav- 
ing strongly marked peculiarities. The members of this 
family are compact in form, without much fat ; they are 
very strong, but, nevertheless, they are remarkably light 
upon their feet, and they tread upon 
the tips of their toes, the heel being 
raised from the ground > and the sole 
of the foot covered with hair like the 
rest of the body. These animals are 
nocturnal in their habits — that is, 
they prowl about at night — and they 
all spring suddenly upon their prey. 
3. The toes are armed with hook- 
ed claws, which, when not in use, 
are drawn up within sheaths that 
they may not become blunted, and 
the same curious contrivance which 
draws in the claws provides also for 
darting them out again as soon as 
they are needed. You may not choose to examine the 
lion's foot very closely, especially as you can see this 
peculiarity with greater ease and more safety in the vel- 
vety paw of a cat. When the cat is in an amiable mood, 
its claws are so nicely folded in that the paw looks per- 
fectly harmless; but if the cat should become vexed while 
you are watching it, and throw out its paw to scratch, the 
sharp claws will soon show themselves ready for service. 
The soft pads under the toes give these animals a stealthy, 




261. — Foot of a 
Lion. 



LIONS AND TIGERS. 379 

noiseless tread, and they also serve to break the jar occa- 
sioned by their violent leaps. 

4. Lions confined to Asia and Africa. — Lions are found 
only in the warm parts of Asia and Africa. They are so 
strong that they can carry large animals in their jaws, 
running and leaping the while as if they were not bur- 
dened with the heavy load. The male lion is ornamented 
with a bushy mane, which covers the shoulders, as well as 
the head and neck, and adds greatly to his majestic ap- 
pearance. The lioness is much smaller than her mate ; 
she has from two to four cubs at a time, and these are as 
playful as young kittens. 

5. Lions are Cowardly Animals. — Although lions are no- 
ble-looking animals, they are by no means courageous in 
disposition. On the contrary, they are extremely coward- 
ly, sleeping through the daytime and lying in wait for 
their prey at night. A dark, stormy night is their favor- 
ite time for starting out, consequently persons travelling 
through the countries frequented by lions seldom meet 
with them on their journeys. Those who have seen them, 
however, describe them as turning quietly round and trot- 
ting off when they find themselves discovered. They are 
much less feared by the natives than the ferocious tiger 
and the leopard. 

6. Redeeming Traits of Character. — The tenderness which 
the lion shows to his mate, and his care to assist her in 
hunting food for their little ones, are redeeming traits in 
his character which are gladly recorded in his favor. 

7. The Tiger. — The tiger, which is a native of Asia, is 
equal to the lion in size, and much more active in its 
movements. Its favorite manner of capturing prey is to 
conceal itself near some spot to which its victims are 
known to resort ; then, with a terrific roar, it springs upon 



380 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 





^~i 


•'./ 1 ^%l «LX*^ lj»1fi **£*.*! 


* / 




\ ■•' ■■ 




i 




w;" !, 'Hii^^ 



Fig. 202. — Tiger attacked by a Crocodile. 



the unsuspecting animals and stuns them by its great 
weight. 

8. There are few animals handsomer than the tiger. 
Its color is a reddish-yellow, striped with irregular bars 
of black, while the under part of the body is white. 

9. The Mimicry of the Lion and Tiger. — In comparing the 
gay coat of the tiger with the uniformly dull one of the 
lion, we can but admire the mimicry of both. The color- 
ing in these two animals is very different, yet the general 
appearance of each one answers the purpose of protection 
in its native haunts. Thus the dull, tawny fur of the lion 
is so much the color of the sandy desert that the king 
of beasts can hardly be distinguished at a distance, as he 
roams over its barren wastes. On the other hand, the 



LIONS AND TIGERS. 



381 



showy coat of the tiger serves equally well as a conceal- 
ment in the jungles frequented by this stealthy animal, 
since the stripes on the back have a general resemblance 
to the tall, coarse grasses among which it hides. 

10. The Leopard. — In the same way, when we consider 
the habits of the leopard, we shall find that its conspicu- 
ous covering only adds to its security. Those handsome 
spots which strike the eye so quickly in the caged animal 
are not unlike the flickering shadows of the leaves in a 




Fig. 263. — Leopard. 



forest when the bright sunlight falls upon it; so that the 
spotted leopard, when at home in its native w^oods, har- 
monizes well with the patches of sunshine and shadow by 
which it is surrounded. 



382 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



LVI. 
SEALS AND WALRUSES. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VEETEBBATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Carnivorous Animals living in the Ocean. — Return- 
ing once more to the dwellers in the ocean, about which 
there is always a peculiar charm, let us now study the 




Fis;. 264. — Herd of Seals. 



seals and walruses. These are truly carnivorous ani- 
mals, fitted for living in the ocean, and their small heads, 
sloping shoulders, and plump bodies, gradually tapering 



SEALS AND WALRUSES. 



383 



towards the tail, offer little resistance in gliding through 
the water. 

2. The short limbs also are well suited to swimming; 
the hindermost ones, however, cannot move very freely, 
for they are set far back, and are so bound down by the 




Fig. 205. — IIaup-seal Mother and her Little One. 



skin that they have the appearance of forming part of the 
tail. The close, thick fur and the layer of fat under the 
skin have their uses likewise, and protect these animals 
from the extreme cold to which they are exposed. 

3. Legends of Mermaids and Sea-nymphs. — The prettily 
rounded head of the seal resembles the head of a dog, and 
when it emerges unexpectedly from the water its intelli- 
gent countenance and large, dark eyes are quite startling, 
and may easily have given rise to some of the legends of 
mermaids and sea-nymphs. 

4. A Sentinel on Guard. — Seals feed chiefly upon fish, and 



384 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

spend most of their time in the water, coming on shore to 
sleep in the sunshine and to suckle their young. One of 
their number is selected to act as sentinel while the others 
lie asleep on the rocks, and this sentinel keeps watch from 
some high point, ready to give warning if they are threat- 
ened with any danger. 

5. The Value of Seals to the Greenlanders. — Seals are 
found in almost all seas, but they are especially abundant 
in cold climates. They form the main subsistence of the 
Greenlanders, who become very skilful in catching them. 
The flesh is used for food, the fat for fuel and for giving 
light, and the skin for clothing and for covering their huts 
and their boats. 

6. Seal-skin Fur. — The beautiful seal-skin fur which we 
prize so highly as an article of clothing is obtained from 
the sea-bear of Alaska. Before the skin is dressed, the 
soft, velvety fur is hidden by long, coarse hairs which 
stick out beyond it ; but when the skins are prepared for 
sale, these coarse hairs are pulled out, leaving only the 
short yellow fur underneath, which is then dyed to pro- 
duce the favorite rich brown color. 

7. Sea-lions. — Sea-lions are a large species of seal having 
external ears. They live in great companies in the Pacific 
Ocean, and towards spring they come to the shore to raise 
their little ones. The males land first, and take their po- 
sitions upon the rocks to await the arrival of the females 
a little later. Fierce struggles then take place as they 
choose their mates from the herd. 

8. Hundreds of these sea-lions may be seen clumsily 
dragging themselves over the rocks in San Francisco Bay. 
They have a loud, shrill bark, which they frequently utter, 
not only on the rocks but also in the water, when they 
rise to the surface for a fresh supply of air. 



SEALS AND WALRUSES. 



385 



9. Walruses. — The walrus is much like the seal, except 
that it is larger and heavier, and it has two sharp-pointed 




Fig. 266. — Walruses. 



tusks formed of the upper canine teeth, which grow down- 
ward, sometimes to the length of two feet. These strong 
tusks must be of great assistance to the walrus in scram- 
17 



386 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

bling out of the water and mounting upon steep rocks and 
icebergs. 

10. Their Gambols. — Walruses live in large herds in the 
Arctic seas, and are hunted for their blubber and their 
tusks. Assembled on the ice, they appear to have great 
sport rolling and tumbling heavily about, making the while 
a loud, bellowing noise. After their frolic the whole party 
generally fall asleep, except one walrus, which is left on 
guard. The polar -bear is their great enemy, and this 
expert diver and swimmer hunts them both in the water 
and upon land, so they are never secure from the danger 
of an attack. 



BEAVERS AND SQUIRRELS. 



387 



LVII. 
BEAVERS AND SQUIRRELS. 

SUB- KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Beavers. — Not very long ago beavers were abundant in 
nearly all the wooded districts of North America, but they 
have become scarce, and are now found only in wild and 
unfrequented parts of the continent. Their hind-feet, as 




Fig. 267.— Beaver. 

you see in the picture, are webbed for swimming, and 
they have a curious broad tail, flattened above and below 
like a paddle, and covered with thick skin. 

2. The Uses of the Tail. — They have been said to use 
this tail as a trowel for plastering their dwellings, and 



388 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

also for driving stakes, but authentic accounts inform us 
that the tail is used merely as a rudder in swimming, and 
as a support to the beaver while sitting up at its work. 

3. Beavers as Builders. — An unusual degree of interest 
is felt in beavers on account of the skill which they dis- 
play in building their homes and in felling timber for the 
construction of their dams. In the arduous labor of cut- 
ting down trees, the only implements used are the sharp, 
gnawing teeth; so we must examine the teeth particular- 
ly that we may see how they are enabled to perform such 
difficult tasks. 

4. The Teeth adapted to the Habits of Gnawing Animals. 
— Beavers belong to the family of rodents, or gnawing 
animals; and as all these animals feed upon nuts, or the 
bark and woody stems of trees, they are supplied with 
sharp, chisel-shaped teeth, in order to nibble tough woody 
fibres. Indeed, the gnawing teeth form the strongest pe- 
culiarity of this order. 

5. In each jaw there are two long, curved incisors, 
which are perpetually growing. The front surface of the 
teeth is covered with hard enamel, which does not wear 
away as rapidly as the body of the tooth behind it; there- 
fore, the front part of the teeth always forms a sharp, 
cutting edge, as shown in Fig. 268. This wearing away 
from gnawing counteracts the continual growth, and keeps 
the teeth at about the same length. If by any accident 
one of the teeth is lost, its opposite neighbor has nothing 
to rub against and wear it off, and consequently it grows 
so long as to become a serious inconvenience. 

6. A further provision for gnawing is shown in the ar- 
rangement of the mouth, the lower jaw being attached to 
the skull in such a manner as to slide backward and for- 
ward, thus aiding in the process. 



BEAVERS AND SQUIRRELS. 



389 



7. Beaver Dams. — As has been stated, beavers show re- 
markable intelligence in building their homes, and they 
arrange them so that the entrance may be at all times be- 
neath the water. When the home of the beaver is in a 
stream or lake deep enough to secure this important ob- 
ject, there is no necessity for a dam, or for the erection of 
houses, and their dwellings are then hollowed out in the 
banks. But if the stream is shallow, dams are needed to 
store up a sufficient quantity of water to conceal the en- 
trance to their homes, as well as to prevent the possibility 
of its being blocked by ice. 

8. In order to build these dams, trees must be cut down 
and dragged or floated to the spot; stones and lumps of 
earth are then brought to keep the timbers and boughs in 




Fig. 268. — Skull of a Bkaver. 

place, and everything is securely fastened. Twigs and 
pieces of wood are also stored up for winter food in case 
the beavers should be compelled to resort to such in-door 
fare. 

9. Their Sagacity in Cutting Timber.— All the wood-cut- 
ting, as we have seen, is done with the sharp front teeth, 
and it is accomplished very rapidly. Sitting upon the 
tail and haunches, a single beaver gnaws a circle around 



390 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

the trunk of a tree, going round again and again, gnawing 
the groove deeper each time. At length, when the trunk 
is cut nearly through, after examining it frequently, the 
careful worker nibbles only upon the side towards which 
it wishes the tree to fall, taking care to dash away at the 
first cracking of the timber, that it may not be crushed 
by the falling weight. The trunk is next cut into the 
desired lengths and dragged to the water, that it may be 
floated to the dam. When large trees are needed, the 
beavers are wise enough to select those that stand near 
the edge of the water, and they are careful to gnaw the 
trees in such a way that they shall fall into it, and thus 
save the labor of dragging them. 

10. These logs are piled up to construct the dams, and 
the branches are plastered with mud and grass to form 
the house, which looks on the outside like a rough, irregu- 
lar pile; still it is firm and well suited to the needs of the 
beaver. 

11. A Beaver Family. — A beaver family rarely consists 
of more than twelve inmates. Frequently the families 
scatter in the spring and live separately during the sum- 
mer; but before cold weather comes they gather together 
again, and every one, both large and small, helps in re- 
pairing the dam and the dwellings, which have suffered 
from neglect during their absence. 

12. Squirrels. — The graceful squirrels, jumping from 
branch to branch among the trees, with their long, bushy 
tails curled up over their backs, and their large ears 
erected to catch the faintest sound, are attractive little 
animals belonging to the same family as the beaver. The 
handsome tail of the squirrel is more than a mere orna- 
ment, for it aids in leaping, and also makes a warm wrap 
at night. 




Fig. 269.— Squirrels 



BEAVERS AND SQUIRRELS. 



393 



13. The Storehouse of the Squirrels.— Squirrels are care- 
ful in summer to lay up a supply of nuts for winter use, 
often carrying as many as four or five acorns at a time in 
the curious cheek-pouches with which some species are 




^^^ 









7 < : ~r 


^U " 






Fig. 270. — Flying-squirrels. 



provided. A hollow tree is generally selected for their 
storehouse, and the squirrels pass the cold weather in the 
same sheltered domicile, but their nests are commonly 
built in the tree-tops. 
17* 



39i ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

14. A Squirrel Nibbling its Nut. — When eating its fa- 
vorite nuts, the squirrel sits upright, holding the nut dain- 
tily in its fore-paws, and turning it from side to side while 
it gnaws away at the shell with its sharp little teeth. 

15. The Flying-squirrel. — The flying -squirrel is one of 
the prettiest of the squirrels. It has really no power of 
flying, but there is a furry skin extending from the fore- 
legs to the hind-legs, which, together with the broad tail, 
acts as a parachute, and supports the active creature for 
a time when it leaps into the air. The flying-squirrel is 
seldom seen, even by those in whose neighborhood it lives, 
because this shy little nut-gatherer ventures out mostly at 
night. 



BATS. 



395 



LVIII. 
BATS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA: CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Bats are True Mammals. — Bats are the only mammals 
that can truly fly, and in studying them we must not lose 
sight of the fact that, although these animals lead a life 
similar to that of birds, yet they are, in reality, mammals. 
They are covered with soft fur instead of feathers; they 
have large ears and noses, with a distinct pair of nostrils; 




Fisr. 271. — Skeleton of a Bat. 



their mouths are furnished with two rows of sharp-pointed 
teeth, and their eyes are protected by eyelids and eye- 
brows. Apparently these bright black eyes distinguish 
objects very imperfectly in the broad daylight, and they 
seem to be better fitted for the dim twilight or the dark- 
ness of night. 



396 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

2. The Wings of the Bat. — We may see in the skeleton 
of the bat (Fig. 271) how very much the arms and fingers 
are lengthened out to form what we usually call the wing. 
These long bones support the delicate skin which is spread 
over them in somewhat the same way that an umbrella 
frame supports the silk which is stretched over it. This 
silky skin connects the fore limbs with the hind limbs, and 
generally extends to the tail, making an excellent substi- 
tute for wings. As an additional preparation for flying, 
there is a keel on the middle of the breastbone for the 
attachment of flying muscles, an arrangement similar to 
that which we noticed in birds. 

3. Their Delicate Sense of Touch. — Bats fly rapidly, al- 
though their movements are awkward and aimless, con- 
sisting of innumerable darts and sudden turns. Their 
sense of touch, especially upon the smooth skin of the 
wings, is very acute. This skin is abundantly supplied 
with nerves, and, by its sensitiveness, it helps the bat to 
discover the presence of small insects in the air. Large 
numbers of gnats, mosquitoes, and flies are devoured by 
the bats as they fly hither and thither in the twilight 
hunting for this kind of food. 

4. How the Bats Live. — These singular animals live al- 
most entirely in the air, and are quite helpless when on 
the ground. They build no nests, and sleep with their 
heads hanging downward, suspended by means of hooks 
on their hind-legs. In this position they pass their days 
in dark caves and crevices, or, not finding these, they take 
refuge under eaves or around old church-steeples. They 
spend the winter in a torpid state, clinging securely to 
some such places as have been described. 

5. The Young Bats. — Bats generally have two little ones 
at a birth, and these young bats cling so closely to their 



BATS. 



397 



mother's breast that she can fly with a pair of them at- 
tached in this way and not appear to feel their weight. 
The skin which covers her tail is folded up over them, and 
her young family is thus wrapped in a safe pouch while 
she flits about in search of food. 

6. The Vampire Bat. — The vampire bat of South Amer- 
ica is a large bat which measures two and a half feet in 
width when its wings are spread. It feeds upon insects, 




Fi" 212.— Bat. 



and has the reputation of killing larger animals, and even 
human beings, by piercing a small round hole and sucking 
the blood while its victims are asleep. Such cases rarely 
occur. The bat does not draw enough blood to cause 
death, but it has been suggested that the animals thus 
attacked may be weakened beyond recovery by the blood 
continuing to flow silently from the wound after the bat 
has satisfied its appetite and gone away. 



398 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



LIX. 
MONKEYS. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

1. Four-handed Animals. — Monkeys are often spoken of 
as four-handed animals, because their feet as well as their 
hands are fitted for grasping objects. The formation of 
the foot is peculiar in having the great toe separated from 
the other toes, so that it can be brought opposite to them 
in much the same way as our thumb folds upon the fin- 
gers, and in consequence of this arrangement the feet 
may be used as a second pair of hands. 

2. The Home of Monkeys. — Monkeys are particularly nu- 
merous in the great tropical forests. They feed upon 
fruits, young birds, and birds' eggs, all of which they find 
in the sheltered tree-tops; therefore they have little occa- 
sion to come to the ground, and they pass most of their 
lives among the leafy branches, running, jumping, and 
swinging from tree to tree. 

3. The New World Monkeys. — The monkeys of this 
continent are confined to Central and South America, 
and they are known by the general name of New World 
monkeys. They differ in many respects from the Old 
World monkeys. They are generally small animals, the 
nostrils are far apart, and are placed near the end of the 
snout. Most of them have long, prehensile tails, and are 
great climbers. 



MONKEYS. 



399 



4. The Difference between the New World and Old World 
Monkeys. — There are a few strongly marked characteris- 
tics by which these two classes of monkeys may be readi- 
ly distinguished. Thus, you may feel quite certain that 
any monkey with a long tail which it can curl up at the 
end for the purpose of taking hold of things belongs to 




Fig. 273. — White-throated Sapajou. 



one of the American species, whereas, on the other hand, 
one that has bare seat-pads may be recognized as having 
come from the Old World. It is generally the American 
monkeys that are seen dressed in little jackets and beg- 
ging pennies for wandering musicians. 

5. Some of these New World monkeys are very intelli- 
gent, and so droll and full of mischief that their pranks 



400 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

are quite amusing. Let us choose from among these the 
spicier monkeys, with their slender bodies and very long 
tails and limbs. This long tail is so strong that it answers 
the purpose of a fifth hand, and is a valuable assistance 




Ei<r. 274. — Manduii.l. 



in climbing and jumping from one tree to another. The 
active little monkey often twists the end of its tail around a 
branch, and with no other support swings freely in the air. 

6. The Old World monkeys are much more highly de- 
veloped than their playful relations on this side of the 
ocean. Their nostrils are placed nearer together, and open 
downward more like our own. The arrangement of the 
teeth is similar to that of man, although the front ones 
are large and prominent, and they are uneven in length. 
Many of these monkeys are entirely without tails, and in 
those species that possess a tail this latter appendage is 
never prehensile. 

1. The Gibraltar Monkey. — The only wild monkey liv- 
ing in Europs at the present time is the celebrated Gib- 



MONKEYS. 



401 



raltar monkey, which roams about the Rock of Gibraltar, 
and is carefully protected by the government. 

8. Baboons. — Baboons are found in all parts of Africa, 
and they are the fiercest and most dangerous of the mon- 
key tribe. Their long snouts give to the head somewhat 
the shape of a dog's head. They have cheek-pouches, in 
which they stow away their food, and the hard pads of 
bare skin on which they sit are usually of some bright 
color. Mandrills are a large variety of baboons, with 
swollen cheeks ornamented with red and blue stripes, and 
their appearance is rendered exceedingly disgusting by 
other patches of gaudy color. -They associate in bands, 




275. — Skeletons of Man, Chimpanzee, and Orang. 



and are so strong that when assisted and encouraged by 
their fellows they do not hesitate to attack the elephant. 

9. The Group of Monkeys known as Apes. — Gibbons, 
orang-outangs, chimpanzees, and gorillas are called apes 
because their structure approaches more nearly to that of 



402 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 

man than is the case with any other animal, and on this 
account they have a peculiar interest to the student of 
natural history. 

10. Gibbons. — Gibbons live in troops in the forests of 
India and the adjacent islands, and are mostly led by one 
male, who is their chief. They are awkward-looking ani- 
mals, with long arms that extend to the ground when they 
stand upright. 




Fig. 276. — Female Orang-outang. 

11. Orang-outangs. — The ugly orang-outangs live on the 
islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Here they inhabit the 
densest forests, and are commonly known as "men of the 
woods." When fully grown they reach the height of four 
or five feet; and although they are heavy, clumsy creat- 
ures, yet they spring about among the branches with great 
ease and rapidity, seldom coming down from their haunts 



MONKEYS. 



403 



unless it be to obtain drink or to shuffle off to some new 
locality. 

12. They do not usually walk erect, but in moving along 
the branches of the forest they often choose an upright 
position, and support themselves by taking hold of the 
boughs overhead. Orangs build a broad nest low down 
in the trees by piling leafy branches loosely upon each 
other without interweaving them. Here they sleep at 
night, and do not leave their nests until the morning sun 
has dried the dampness from the surrounding leaves. 




Fi£. 277. — Chimpanzee. 



13. Chimpanzees. — Chimpanzees are natives of Western 
Africa. They have no hair on the hands and face, and 
none on their large, rounded ears. Altogether their general 
resemblance to man is decidedly grotesque. Their arms 



404 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 




Fig. 2*78.— Gorillas. 



are shorter than the orang's, still they fall below the knee. 
They can walk erect, although they seldom do so, their 
habit being to bend forward and rest upon their hands as 
they move about. They live in companies in the woods, 



MONKEYS. 405 

and form nests among the branches near the ground. 
When tamed, chimpanzees have sometimes been taught 
to eat their food with a spoon at the table, and to imitate 
some other customs of human beings. 

14. Gorillas. — Much larger and more ferocious than the 
chimpanzees are the gorillas of Western Africa, which are 
often found six feet in height. These strong animals live 
in bands, and build nests which are occupied only at night. 
Gorillas are now generally considered to be the most high- 
ly developed of the apes. 



406 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA AND ON THE LAND. 



LX. 

MAN. 

SUB-KINGDOM, VERTEBRATA : CLASS, MAMMALIA. 

We have now traced the gradual development of animal 
life upon our earth, from the simple forms to the extreme- 
ly complex ones, and our only remaining subject is man, 
the acknowledged head of the animal kingdom, the study 
of whose physical and intellectual nature forms separate 
branches of science. 

The habitual position of man is erect; the lower limbs 
are used only for walking and for supporting the weight 
of the body. The arms are much shorter than the lower 
limbs, and they terminate in a hand which is admirably 
adapted to ministering to his needs, and to performing all 
the delicate operations which beautify and enrich his life. 
Above all, man is gifted with the power of speech, and 
with mental and moral faculties capable of the highest 
cultivation. 



INDEX. 



Acorn-barnacle, 99. 

Action of light upon shells, 151. 

Albatross, '267. 

Alligator, 239. 

Ambergris, 350. 

Ambulacra! plates, 61. 

Ammonite, 183. 

Amphibious animals, 215. 

Ant, 135. 

" driver, 142. 

" harvesting, 141. 

" white, 142. 
Ant-eater, great, 342. 

" porcupine, 331. 

Antelope, 367. 
Antlers, 358. 
Apes, 401. 
Aphides, 140. 
Apteryx, 282. 
Archceoptervx, 241. 
Argonaut, 176. 
Aristotle's lantern, 67. 
Armadillo, 341. 
Articulates, 83. 
Atolls, 46. 
Auk, 269. 

Baboon, 401. 
Backboned animals, 185. 
Bank-swallow, 317. 
Barnacle, 99. 

" acorn, 99. 

" goose, 101. 



Bat, 395. 

" vampire, 397. 
Beaver, 387. 

" dam, 389. 
Bees, 119. 

" carpenter, 120. 
" hive, 121. 
" humble, 121. 
" queen, 124. 
" social, 120. 
" solitary, 120. 
" swarming of, 126. 
" the sting of, 119. 
Birds, 243. 

" of paradise, 307. 
" of prey (Raptores), 320. 
Birds' eggs, 253. 
" nests, 256. 
Bivalves, 144. 
Blood, 190. 
Blubber, 346. 
Boa, 228. 
Bobolink, 314. 
Bower-bird, 309. 
Box-tortoise, 217. 
Breathing of fishes, 196. 

of frogs, 212, 214. 
" of gasteropods, 163. 
" of insects, 112. 
" of lobsters, 95. 
" of man, 214. 
" of snails, 167. 
" of spiders, 104. 



408 



INDEX. 



Breathing of turtles, 218. 

" of vertebrates, 191. 
Butcher-bird, 811. 
Butterflies, 113. 
Byssus, 150. 

Camel, 368. 

" Arabian, 370. 
"• Bactrian, 370. 
Carnivorous animals, 377. 
Carpenter-bee, 120. 
Cassowary, 282. 
Cat family, 378. 
Caterpillar, 113. 
Cephalopods, 170. 
Cephalo-thorax, 89. 
Chambered nautilus, 181. 
Chameleon, 232. 
Chamois, 367. 

Characteristics of birds, 243. 
Chimpanzee, 403. 
Chrysalis of insects, 113. 
Cilia, 4, 52. 

Circulation of the blood, 190. 
in birds, 248. 

" in crocodiles, 238. 

" in earth-worms, 84. 

in fishes, 196. 

" in insects, 111. 

" in mammals, 331. 

" in reptiles, 219. 

Clam, 154. 

Climbing-birds (Scansores), 295. • 
Cobra, 228. 
Cod, 205. 

Cold-blooded animals, 219. 
Coloring of tropical animals, 201. 
Comatula, 72. 
Compound eyes, 111. 
Condor, 325. 
Coral polyps, 36. 

" reefs, 43. 
Corals, 36. 

" mushroom, 41. 



Corals, organ-pipe, 41. 

" red, 41. 
Corpuscles, 191. 
Cow-bunting, 300. 
Crab, 88. 

" fiddler, 92. 

" hermit, 91. 

" horse-shoe, 94. 

" king, 94. 

" pea, 93. 
Crane, 272. 
Crinoids, 70. 
Crocodile, 235. 
Crossbill, 306. 
Crustaceans, 90. 
Ctenophora, 49. 
Cuckoo, 299. 
Cucumber, sea, 76. 
Cultivation of fishes, 210. 
" of mussels, 150. 

" of oysters, 147. 

" of sponges, 9. 
Cuttle-fish, 173. 

Deer, 358. 

Devil-fish, 170. 

Digestion of gasteropods, 161. 

" of insects, 111. 

" of ruminating animals, 360. 

" of vertebrates, 190. 
Dodo, 293. 
Dolphin, 351. 
Driver-ants, 142. 
Dromedary, 370. 
Duck, 261. 

" eider, 267. 
Duck-bill, 327. 

Eagle, 321. 

" bald, 323. 

" golden, 321. 
Earth-worm, 82. 
Echinoderm, 68. 
Echinus, 68. 



INDEX. 



409 



Edentata, 338. 

Edible birds'-nest, 316. 

Effect of use and disuse, 92, 96, 

246. 
Eggs of alligators, 239. 

" of ants, 137. 

" of birds, 253. 

"f o fishes, 199. 

" of frogs, 211. 

" of gasteropods, 163. 

" of hive-bees, 124. 

" of jelly-fishes, 14, 19. 

" of mosquitoes, 133. 

" of octopods, 174. 

" of ostriches, 279. 

" of oysters, 147. 

" of pear-conch, 163. 

" of sharks, 203. 

" of snails, 168. 

" of spiders, 105. 

" of turtles, 221. 
Eider-duck, 267. 
Elephant, 372. 

" African, 374. 
" Indian, 375. 
" white, 375. • 
Emu, 281. 
Epidermis of shells, 151. 

Feathers, 250. 
Feather-star, 72. 
Fiddler-crab, 92. 
Fins, 195. 
Fishes, 192. 
Fish-hawk, 323. 
Flamingo, 262. 
Flies, 134. 
Flint, 11. 

Flowers fertilized by insects, 116. 
Flycatcher, 257. 
Flying-dragon, 233. 
Flying-fishes, 198. 
Flying-squirrel, 394. 
Foot of mollusks, 149. 
18 



Fossil birds, 282. 

" cephalopods, 183. 

" crinoids, 72. 

" horses, 354. 

" mammoths, 376. 

" reptiles, 240. 
Fossils, 73. 
Fowls, 284. 
Fringing reefs, 48. 
^rog, 211. 
Funnel of cephalopods, 172. 

Ganglia, 84. 
Garden-spider, 107. 
Gasteropods, 158. 
Gazelle, 367. 
Gibbon, 402. 
Gills, 89, 196. 
Glyptodon, 343. 
Gnawing animals, 388. 
Goldfinch, 304. 
Goose, 261. 

" barnacle, 102. 
Gorilla, 405. 
Gossamer-spider, 107. 
Grubs, 115. 
Guillemot, 269. 
Gull, 264. 

Hand-beast, 241. 
Harvesting ant, 141. 
Hawk, 320. 
Heart of birds, 248. 

" of crabs, 89. 

" of crocodiles, 238. 

" of fishes, 196. 

" of frogs, 213. 

" of oysters, 146. 

" of snakes, 226. 

" of turtles, 219. 

" of vertebrates, 190. 
Hermit-crab, 91. 
Heron, 271. 
Herring, 205. 



410 



INDEX. 



Hibernating, 220. 
Hive-bees, 121. 
Holothurians, 79. 
Hornbill, 307. 
Horned toad, 234. 
Hornet, 131. 
Horse, 353. 
Horse-shoe cmb, 94. 
House-fly, 134. 
Humble-bee, 121. 
Humming-bird, 311. 
Hydroids, 12. 

Ibis, sacred, 275. 

" wood, 274. 
Idyia, 54. 
Iguana, 233. 
Imago, 114. 
India-ink, 172. 
Ink-bag of cephalopods, 1' 
Insects, 110. 
Invertebrates, 187. 

Jaw-feet, 95. 
Jelly-fishes, 14, 18. 

Kangaroo, 333. 
Keyhole urchin, 69. 
King-crab, 94. 
Koodoo, 367. 

Labial palpi, 146. 
Labyrinthodon, 241. 
Lady in the lobster, 97. 
Larva of insects, 113. 
Lasso-cells, 20. 
Leopard, 381. 
Limpet, 165. 
Lingual ribbon, 160. 
Lion, 377. 
Lizard, 230. 
Llama, 371. 
Lobster, 95. 
Lustre of shells, 151. 



Mackerel, 205. 
Madreporic body, 58, 65. 
Maggot, 115. 
Mammals, 329. 

" characteristics of, 330. 
Mammoth, 376. 
Man, 406. 
Mandrill, 401. 
Mantle, 143. 
Marsupials, 336. 
Mastodon, 376. 
Medusae, 21. 
Megatherium, 343. 
Metamorphosis, 112. 

of barnacles, 100. 
' : of crabs, 91. 

of insects, 112. 
of mosquitoes, 132. 
Migration of birds, 251. 
of fishes, 205. 
" of salmon, 206. 
Mimicry, 32, 231. 

of birds, 249, 259. 
of butterflies, 117. 
of leopards, 381. 
of lions, 380. 
of lizards, 231. 
of mollusks, 143. 
of pheasants, 286. 
of tigers, 380. 
Moa, 283. 
Mocking-bird, 314. 
Mollusks, 143. 
Monkeys, 398. 

Gibraltar, 400. 
New World, 398. 
Old World, 400. 
" spider, 400. 
Mosquito, 132. 

Mother Carey's chickens, 267. 
Mother-of-pearl, 153. 
Moths, 116. 

Moulting, 90, 97, 113, 133, 226. 
! Mud-wasp, 128 



INDEX. 



411 



Music of bird: 
Mussel, 149. 



249. 



Nacre, 151. 
Narwhal, 351. 
Natica, 164. 
Nautilus, paper, 176. 
41 pearly, 181. 
Nidus of natica, 164. 
Nightingale, 314. 

Octopus, 170. 
Odontophore, 161. 
Operculum, 160. 
Opossum, 336. 
Orang-outang, 402. 
Organs, 27. 

" rudimentary, 20 
Oriole, 302. 
Omithorhynchus, 327. 
Ostrich, 277. 

" farming, 280. 
Ovipositor, 111. 
Owl, 325. 
Oyster, 143. 

" pearl, 151. 

Pallial line, 146. 

Paper nautilus, 176. 

Parrot, 295. 

Parrot's beak, 171. 

Partial distribution of animals, 338. 

Partridge, 288. 

Pea-crab, 93. 

Pea-fowl, 284. 

Pearl, 151. 

" fisheries, 152. 

" oyster, 151. 
Pearly nautilus, 181. 
Pecten, 153/ 
Pelican, 269. 
Penguin, 268. 

Perching-birds (Insessores), 302. 
" of birds, 247. 



Pheasant, 286. 
Phosphorescence, 24. 
Pigeon, 290. 
Plant-lice, 140. 
Pleurobrachia, 55. 
Poison-fang, 225. 
Porpoise, 351. 
Portuguese man-of-war, 26. 
Prehensile tail, 233. 
Pupa of insects, 113. 

Quadrate bonk, 225. 
Quail, 290. 

Radiates, 40. 

Rattlesnake, 226. 

Razor-fish, 157. 

Reed-bird, 315. 

Reindeer, 364. 

Renewal of lost parts, 33, 57, 79, 96, 
230. 

Reptiles, 217. 

Rhea, 280. 

Rice-bird, 316. 

Robin, 302. 

Rodents, 388. 
j Rorqual, 348. 

Ruby-throat, 313. 

Rudimentary organs, 20. 

Ruminating animals, 360. 
I Running-birds (Cursores), 277. 

Sacred ibis, 275. 
Salmon, 206. 
Sand-dollar, 69. 

Scratching- birds (Iiasores), 284. 
Sea anemone, 29. 
Sea-bear, 384. 
Sea-birds, 263. 
Sea-cucumber, 76. 
Sea-fir, 12. 
Sea-gull, 264. 
I Sea-horse, 201. 



412 



INDEX. 



Sea-lion, 384. 
Sea-nettle, 21. 
Sea-orange, 78. 
Sea-urchin, 63. 
Seal, 382. 
Sepia, 172. 
Shark, 203. 
Shell-fishes, 143. 
Shore-birds, 276. 
Shrike, 311. 
Silk-worm, 117. 
Siphon of mollusks, 155. 
Siphuncle, 182. 
Skylark, 314. 
Sloth, 338. 
Snail, 166. 
Snakes, 223. 
Snow-bird, 304. 
Song-sparrow, 304. 
Spermaceti, 349. 
Spicules, 3, 6. 
Spider, 103. 

" garden, 107. 

" gossamer, 107. 

" trap-door, 108. 

" water, 107. 
Spinal column, 186. 
Spines of sea-urchins, 66. 
Spinnerets, 104. 
Sponge-fishing, 9. 

" glass, 10. 
Sponges, 1. 
Spore-sacs, 14. 
Squid, 175. 
Squirrel, 390. 

11 flying, 394. 
Starfish, 56. 
Stickleback, 200. 
Stigmata, 112. 
Sting of bees, 119. 

" of mosquitoes, 132. 
Stone-lily, 70 
Stork, 273. 
Stormy petrel, 265. 



Sunfish, 200. 

Surinam toad, 215. 

Swallow, 316. 

Swan, 262. 

Swim-bladder, 196. 

Swimmerets, 96. 

Swimming-birds (Natatores), 260. 

Tadpoles, 211. 
Tailor-bird, 257. 
Tarantula, 108. 
Telson, 96. 
Tentacles, 13, 20, 30. 
Termites, 142. 
Terrapin, 220. 
Thrush, 314. 
Tiger, 379. 
Toad, 214. 

" horned, 234. 

" Surinam, 215. 

" tree, 215. 
Tortoise, 217. 
Tortoise-shell, 221. 
Toucan, 300. 
Tracheae, 112. 
Trap-door spider, 108. 
Trepan g, 80. 
Trogon, 301. 
Tube-feet, 60. 
Turkey, 284. 
Turtle, 217. 

" green, 220. 

" hawk's-bill, 221. 

Univalves, 158. 
Urchin, key-hole, 69. 
" sea, 63. 

Vampire bat, 397. 
Venus's flower-basket, 10. 
Vertebrates, 186. 
Vulture, 325. 

Wading-birds (Grallatores), 271. 



INDEX. 



413 



Walrus, 385. 
Wasps, 128. 

" mud, 128. 

" social, 129. 
Water-spider, 107. 
Weaver-bird, 259. 
Whalebone, 346. 
Whales, 344. 

" Greenland, 346. 

" sperm, 349. 
Whippoorwill, 318. 



White ant, 142. 
Wings of birds, 245. 
Woodpecker, 296. 
Worm, earth, 82. 
Worm, silk, 117. 
Wren, 311. 

Yellow-bird, 304. 
Yellow-jacket, 132. 

Zkbra, 356. 



THE END. 



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